The Causes of Conflict
The evidence taken from the observation of the behavior of apes and children suggests that there are three clearly separable groups of simple causes for the outbreak of fighting and the exhibition of aggressiveness by individuals.
One of the most common causes of fighting among both children and apes was over the possession of external objects. The disputed ownership of any desired objectfood, clothes, toys, females, and the affection of otherswas sufficient ground for an appeal to force. On Monkey Hill disputes over females were responsible for the death of thirty out of thirty-three females. Two points are of particular interest to notice about these fights for possession.
In the first place they are often carried to such an extreme that they end in the complete destruction of the objects of common desire. Toys are torn to pieces. Females are literally torn limb from limb. So overriding is the aggression once it has begun that it not only overflows all reasonable boundaries of selfishness but utterly destroys the object for which the struggle began and even the self for whose advantage the struggle was undertaken.
In the second place it is observable, at least in children, that the object for whose possession aggression is started may sometimes be desired by one person only or merely because it is desired by someone else. There were many cases observed by Dr Isaacs where toys and other objects which had been discarded as useless were violently defended by their owners when they became the object of some other childs desire. The grounds of possessiveness may, therefore, be irrational in the sense that they are derived from inconsistent judgments of value. Whether sensible or irrational, contests over possession are commonly the occasion for the most ruthless use of force among children and apes.
One of the commonest kinds of object arousing possessive desire is the notice, good will, affection, and service of other members of the group. Among children one of the commonest causes of quarreling was jealousythe desire for the exclusive possession of the interest and affection of someone else, particularly the adults in charge of the children. This form of behavior is sometimes classified as a separate cause of conflict under the name of rivalry or a jealousy. But, in point of fact, it seems to us that it is only one variety of possessiveness. The object of desire is not a material objectthat is the only difference. The object is the interest and affection of other persons. What is wanted, however, is the exclusive right to that interest and affectiona property in emotions instead of in things. As subjective emotions and as causes of conflict, jealousy and rivalry are fundamentally similar to the desire for the uninterrupted possession of toys or food. Indeed, very often the persons, property which is desired, are the sources of toys and food.
Possessiveness is, then, in all its forms a common cause of fighting. If we are to look behind the mere facts of behavior for an explanation of this phenomenon, a teleological cause is not far to seek. The exclusive right to objects of desire is a clear and simple advantage to the possessor of it. It carries with it the certainty and continuity of satisfaction. Where there is only one claimant to a good, frustration and the possibility of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is, therefore, obvious that, if the ends of the self are the only recognized ends, the whole powers of the agent, including the fullest use of his available force, will be used to establish and defend exclusive rights to possession.
Another cause of aggression closely allied to possessiveness is the tendency for children and apes greatly to resent the intrusion of a stranger into their group. A new child in the class may be laughed at, isolated, and disliked and even set upon and pinched and bullied. A new monkey may be poked and bitten to death. It is interesting to note that it is only strangeness within a similarity of species that is resented. Monkeys do not mind being joined by a goat or a rat. Children do not object when animals are introduced to the group. Indeed, such novelties are often welcomed. But when monkeys meet a new monkey or children a strange child, aggression often occurs. This suggests strongly that the reason for the aggression is fundamentally possessiveness. The competition of the newcomers is feared. The present members of the group feel that there will be more rivals for the food or the attention of the adults.
伊索寓言Lesson 30 The milkmaid and her pail 挤牛奶的姑娘
幼儿英语水果名称:字母F、G、H、J、K开头
少儿英语单词顺口溜:工作和职业英语单词歌
少儿英语单词顺口溜:衣物英语单词歌
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:常见水果
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:文具词汇
幼儿英语单词大全:颜色的英语(colours颜色)
幼儿英语单词大全:交通工具英语名称(vehicles)
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:色彩和颜色
幼儿英语水果名称:字母L、M、N开头
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:房子内外及家具
单词辨义:what, how, where, who和how old怎么用好?
幼儿英语单词大全:人物英语名称(people人物)
幼儿英语单词大全:身体英语名称(body身体)
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:动物名词歌
幼儿英语水果名称:字母S开头
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:家庭成员
伊索寓言Lesson 29 The trumpeter taken prisoner 号兵
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:季节与天气英语单词歌
幼儿英语水果名称:字母T、V、W开头
幼儿英语单词大全:衣服英语名称(clothes)
少儿英语音标入门:短元音[i]的发音方法
幼儿英语单词顺口溜:身体部位
幼儿英语水果名称:字母A、B开头
少儿英语单词顺口溜:少儿学科科目英语单词歌
幼儿英语单词大全:蔬菜英语名称(vegetables)
幼儿英语水果名称:字母O、P、Q、R开头
幼儿英语单词大全:植物英语名称(plants)
少儿英语单词顺口溜:食物及餐具英语单词歌
幼儿英语单词大全:气象英语名称(weather)
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