摘要：本文通过对非谓语动词与谓语动词之间的比较与分析，对非谓语动词进行了系统详尽的研究，着重阐明了各非谓语动词之间在语态、时态和语法成分上的区别。
关键词：非谓语动词
逻辑主语
语态
时态
非谓语动词与谓语动词有着千丝万缕的联系。从形式上讲，谓语动词有四种：以动词do为例，动词原型为do、过去式为did、现在分词为doing和过去分词为done；非谓语动词也有四种：以动词do为例，不定式为to do；现在分词为doing、动名词为doing和过去分词为done。其中，现在分词和动名词现在统称为V-ing。
从语态上讲，谓语动词和非谓语动词都有两种，但表现形式不同。以动词do为例，谓语动词是：主动语态do和被动语态be done；非谓语动词是：主动语态，不定式to do，现在分词和动名词doing。被动语态，不定式to be done，现在分词和动名词being done和过去分词done。
从时态上讲，谓语动词有16种时态：一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成时、现在完成进行时、一般过去时、过去进行时、过去完成时、过去完成进行时、过去将来时、过去将来进行时、过去将来完成时、过去将来完成进行时、一般将来时、将来进行时、将来完成时、将来完成进行时，而非谓语动词因为最多有四种形式，一般式（不定式、现在分词与动名词和过去分词）sb. to do sth 疑问词+to do sth 逻辑主语+to do sth
被动 for sth. to be done 疑问词+to be done 逻辑主语+to be done
动名词 主动 N’s doing sth
被动 N’s being done
现在
分词 主动
逻辑主语+doing sth
被动
逻辑主语+being done
过去
分词 被动
逻辑主语+done
从用法上讲，非谓语动词和谓语动词都能跟语法成分，都有自己的主语，都需要主谓一致；都在句中充当一定的语法成分。非谓语动词与谓语动词之间，以及不同的非谓语动词之间有相同点，也有不同点。现分述如下：
二、自己的主语
谓语动词在语法上有自己的主语，而非谓语动词在逻辑上有自己的主语。
1. 非谓语动词作宾语或状语时，句子的主语就是其逻辑主语。例如：
I like swimming in the sea during the summer.
He forgot to close the window when he left.
He ran fast enough to catch the bus.
He stood in the dim light, reading.
He stood there, frightened at the footprints.
The question is very hard to answer.
2. 非谓语动词作宾语补足语时，宾语就是其逻辑主语。例如：
ask somebody to do something
have somebody do something
get the car running
have something done（something与done之间具有逻辑上的被动的主谓关系，把它们变成句子后，这种关系会更加清楚：Something will be done.）
3．分词作定语时，它们所修饰的词就是它们的逻辑主语；不定式作定语时，有时它所修饰的词也是它的逻辑主语。例如：
Who is the man standing =(that is standing) at the door?
There was no problem settled (= that was settled) at the meeting.
Please tell me the subject to be discussed at the next meeting.（The subject will be discussed at the next meeting.）
4．在for/of sb. to to sth. 结构中，sb.就是不定式的逻辑主语。例如：
It was not right for the South to break away from the Union.
It’s very kind of you to help me.
5．在动名词的复合结构sb.’s/sb. doing sth.中，sb’s和sb就是动名词的逻辑主语。例如：
Jack’s suddenly disappearing made them worried. → It made them worried Jack (=Jack’s) suddenly disappearing.（逻辑主语是名词）
His coming home is a great event. → It is a great event his coming home.（人称代词）
His sister Helen getting married last week was a great event in the town.（名词词组）
I am not surprised at old and young falling in love.（名词词组）
Today being sunny makes us happy.（时间名词）
She is afraid of your ruining yourself.（人称代词）
He lives in a house of his own building.（人称代词）
In spite of the four telling the same story, I couldn’t believe it.（数词）
This cannot be said without some getting angry.（不定代词）
I am doubtful of this being the best choice.（指示代词）
特别提醒：
动名词的复合结构作主语时，作逻辑主语的名词和人称代词都必须用所有格，但名词词组和指时间的名词常用主格，如有it作形式主语时，作逻辑主语的名词常用主格，而人称代词仍然用所有格；作及物动词的宾语时，名词常用主格，人称代词用所有格和宾格都可以；作介词宾语时，名词、名词词组、数词、不定代词、指示代词常用主格，人称代词常用所有格特别是后面有own时。6．在独立主格结构中，非谓语动词前面的名词或主格代词就是其逻辑主语。例如：
Spring coming, trees begin to turn green.
She having been away, he felt lonely.
Everything done, he felt relaxed.
We planted 500 trees today, the rest to be planted tomorrow.
7．在with或without的复合结构中，介词宾语就是非谓语动词的逻辑主语。例如：
With a lot of difficult problems to settle, the newly elected president is having a hard time.（2002上海春季，37）
8．在Thank you for doing sth.等句型中，sb.就是动名词doing的逻辑主语。例如：
Excuse me for coming late.
I tried to persuade him out of smoking, but failed.
三、主谓一致
非谓语动词和谓语动词一样，在人称和数上、在语态或时态上都需要与主语保持一致。
1．在人称和数上
在人称和数上，谓语动词需要与主语保持一致，而非谓语动词作主语时需要与谓语保持一致。即如果主语表示一个整体概念，谓语动词用单数形式；如果表示两个及以上的个体概念，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：
As you can see, the number of cars on roads keeps rising these days.正如你所看到的那样，道路上的车辆这几天不断地在增加。（2006全国Ⅱ，20）
Respecting the old and caring for the young is our good tradition in China.尊老爱幼是我们中国的良好传统。
Playing football and listening to music on Sundays are my favorite activities.星期天踢足球和听音乐是我最喜欢的（两项）活动。
2．在语态上
在语态上，谓语动词需要与句子的主语保持一致，而非谓语动词需要与自己的逻辑主语保持一致。即如果主语或逻辑主语与谓语或逻辑谓语之间存在主动关系，谓语动词或逻辑谓语动词就用主动语态，存在被动关系，就用被动语态。一句话，语态的确定，谓语动词看与主语的关系，非谓语动词看与逻辑主语的关系。
语态上，非谓语动词的“主动式”与谓语动词的“主动语态”同义，若把非谓语动词变成句子、从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用主动语态。非谓语动词的“被动式”与谓语动词的“被动语态”的意义相同，若把非谓语动词变成从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用被动语态。例如：
He was busy writing a story, only stopping once in a while to smoke a cigarette. 他忙着编故事，偶尔停下来吸支烟。(2008辽宁，27) → He was busy writing a story and only stopped once in a while to smoke a cigarette.
The children talked so loudly at dinner table that I had to struggle to be heard (=so that I could be heard).孩子们吃饭的时候说话的声音非常大，我不得不极力提高嗓门，以便其他人听清我的话。（2007浙江，20）
The soldier walked very slowly as if having been wounded (=as if he had been wounded).那个士兵走得很慢，好像受伤了。
I insist on him being punished. → I insist that he should be punished.我坚持要求他受惩罚。
已经失去了主动意味而具有形容词性的现在分词和已经失去了被动意味而具有形容词性的过去分词与其逻辑主语之间具有“主（系）The dog frightening, no strangers dare to approach it. → As the dog is frightening, no strangers dare to approach it.那条狗很可怕，生人都不敢靠近它。（说明the dog的性质。）
Surprised and happy (=While he was surprised and happy), Tony stood up and accepted the prize.托尼在惊喜当中起身领奖。（2006全国Ⅰ，32，描述Tony的心情。）
Can those seated (=who are seated) at the back of the classroom hear me? (2008福建，33，说明those的状态。)
Ideally located (= Because it is ideally located) for Broadway theatres and Fifth Avenue, the New York Park hotel is a favourite with many guests.因为处于方便到达百老汇剧院及第五大道之地，纽约公园酒店成了大量客人的首选之地。 (2008上海，37，说明the New York Park hotel的状态。)
这类具有形容词性或已经变成了形容词的分词主要来自具有“使人或令人心里或感情发生变化”的动词，另外，还有一些使役动词变来的过去分词。例如：annoying令人略感心烦/恼火的，annoyed略感烦恼/生气的；amusing令人开心的，amused开心的；astonishing令人惊讶的，astonished（感到）惊讶的；confusing令人困惑的，难懂的，confused（感到）困惑的，糊涂的；delighting/pleasing令人高兴的，delighted/pleased（感到）高兴的；disappointing令人失望的，disappointed（感到）失望的；discouraging令人灰心/泄气的，discouraged（感到）泄气的；exciting令人兴奋的，excited（感到）兴奋的；thrilling引人入胜的，令人激动的，thrilled非常激动的，兴奋的；fascinating迷人的，有极大吸引力的，fascinated被迷住的，被吸引住的，极感兴趣的；frightening令人可拍的，frightened（感到）可怕的；frustrating令人沮丧/泄气/不快的，frustrated沮丧/气恼/灰心丧气的；interesting令人感兴趣的，interested感/有兴趣的； moving令人感动的，moved感动的；puzzling令人困惑/迷惑的，puzzled（感到）困惑的，迷惑的；relaxing令人放松的，relaxed（感到）轻松的；shocking令人震惊的，触目惊心的，shocked惊愕的，受震惊的；surprising令人吃惊的，surprised（感到）吃惊的；terrifying极其可怕的，骇人听闻的，terrified非常害怕的，极度惊恐的；tiring令人疲劳的，tired（感到）疲倦的，累的，困倦的；troubling令人苦恼/忧虑的，troubled（感到）苦恼/忧虑/为难/担忧的；upsetting令人心烦意乱/心情不好的，upset心烦/烦恼的；born出生；determined决心的，决定的；hidden 隐藏；located坐落；prepared准备好的；seated坐着的；absorbed in专心致志于；accustomed to/used to习惯于；buried/lost in埋头于，陷入；concerned about/for/ sb./sth.关心，挂念某人/担心，关心，关注某事的；concerned in sth.涉及或与某事相关的； devoted/dedicate to忠诚/献身于着 in忙于 with面临 in参与，涉及，卷入等You are to blame.怪你。（动词为blame，用主动语态。）You’re not to blame for what happened.出了事不能怪你。
A great deal is still/yet to do.还有许多事要做。（不定代词与be still/yet连用，不定式用主动语态。）
Something remains to do.有些事情有待解决。（不定代词与remain连用，不定式用主动语态。注意：名词或从句与remain连用时，不定式常用被动语态，如：Several points remain to be settled.还有几个问题有待解决。/It remains to be seen whether he will pass.他是否能通过考试仍不得而知。）
②动名词的主动语态表示被动的情况。例如
The house needs/wants/requires repairing (=to be repaired).这房屋需要修理了。
He deserves praising (=to be praised).他值得表扬。
The book is well worth reading.这本书很值得一读。
⑵因为不定式动作的执行者非常明显，所以经常被省略，省略后不会影响理解或造成误解，有时加上去反而显得句子累赘。当省略了for sb.时，不定式用主动语态；省略了by sb.时，不定式用被动语态。例如：
Do you have anything important (for you) to do today? 你今天有什么这样的事情要做吗？
I’m going to the post office. Do you have any letter to be posted (by me), Mary?我要去邮局。你有信寄吗，玛丽？
The problem is easy (for me/us/you/everyone) to answer.这个问题容易解决。
I like getting up very early in summer. The morning air is so good to breathe. (=for me to breathe 2008海南，宁夏，全国Ⅰ，26)
⑶已经变成了介词的分词不受逻辑主语的限制，不需要考虑语态和时态问题。例如：
Seeing that she was going off to sleep, I asked if she’d like that little doll on her bed.（2008北京，24）鉴于她要去睡觉，我问她是否喜欢她床上的那个小洋娃娃。
Given the general state of his health, it may take him a while to recover from the operation.他动了手术，如果要全面恢复健康，可能需要一段时间。（2000春季北京，安徽，17）
这些分词式介词或分词式介词短语是：considering考虑到，鉴于；就……而论，照……来看；supposing如果，假如；given如果有/要；考虑到；由于，鉴于；failing如果没有，如果……不在，如果……不行的话；wanting没有，缺乏；including包括；excepting/excluding=except除……之外；following在……之后；concerning/regarding/respecting/touching关于、涉及、就……；according to根据；owing to由于，因为；allowing for考虑到；coming to/ speaking of/ talking of谈起，说到； getting back to回到（原来的话题）；judging by/from从……判断；leaving …on one side抛开……不谈；relating to与……有关；。
还有个别分词式介词与that-clause连用，that可以省略；相当于连词引导的从句。例如：
Provided (that) there is no opposition, I will act as representative of our class.假如没有反对的话，我将担任本班的代表。
这些介词有：considering that (引导条件状语从句，等于taking into account/consideration，还可以说considering who/how等从句)考虑到，鉴于；seeing that (口语中引导原因状语从句，等于since；还可以说seeing as)因为，由于，鉴于；assuming（多引导真实条件句，等于if）如果，假如；supposing that(引导真实条件句和虚拟语气句，等于if/suppose)如果，假如；providing/provided that (多引导真实条件句，说话者要求条件成真，等于 if)只要，如果；granting/granted (引导让步状语从句=even though; even supposing that)即使，就算，纵然。
⑷用作插入语的分词和不定式也不受逻辑主语的限制。这些词是：failing that如果不行的话；generally speaking总的说来；frankly speaking坦率地说；roughly speaking粗略地说；honestly speaking诚实地说；personally speaking就个人来说；properly speaking实际上；strictly speaking严格地说；politically speaking从政治方面说；geographically speaking从地理上说；biologically speaking从生物学角度说；technically speaking从技术上说；theoretically speaking从理论上讲；taking all things together/taking all things into consideration全盘考虑；viewing it from this point从这一点来讲；believe it or not信不信由你；to be honest老实说；to be exact精确地说；to be brief简言之；to conclude总之；to sum up概括地说；to tell you the truth实话实说；to cut/make a long story short长话短说；to begin/start with首先；to make matters worse更糟的是；strange to sat说来奇怪；sad to tell说来令人伤心。等。
3．在时态上
在时态上，谓语动词需要与句子的主语保持一致，而非谓语动词需要与自己的逻辑主语保持一致。即，如果主语或逻辑主语与谓语或逻辑谓语之间存在某种时态关系，就用适当的时态。但要注意：非谓语动词不像谓语动词一样，也有16种时态（一般现在时一般过去时一般将来时过去来时现在完成时过去完成时将来完成时过去将来完成时现在进行时过去进行时将来进行时过去将来进行时现在完成进行时过去完成进行时将来完成进行时过去将来完成时）My parents have always made me feel good about myself, even when I was twelve.我的家长总使让我自我感觉良好，甚至在我12岁的时候就这样了。（2007江苏，30。该句说明I always feel good.不定式的一般式指动作的“一贯性”，表示动作从过去到现在一贯如此。）
To read without reflecting is like eating without digesting.（=It is a fact that when you read without reflecting, it is like eating without digesting.）学而不思，犹如食而不化。（不定式的一般式指动作的“普遍性”或“真理性”，用于“名言警句”。）
To write the report took him a long time.（=The report took him a long time.）写这份报告花了他很长时间。（不定式的一般式指动作的“回忆性”，回忆过去做过的事情。）
In order to catch the bus, I got up early this morning.（=I got up early this morning so that I would be able to catch the bus.）为了赶车，我今天起得很早。（不定式的一般式指动作的“将来性”或“后时性”，表示动作在将来即谓语动作之后发生。）
With a lot of difficult problems to settle (= As there are a lot of difficult problems for him to settle/As there are a lot of difficult problems that he has to/will have to settle), the newly elected president is having a hard time.有许多问题要解决，新当选的总统日子会不太好过。（2002上海春季，37。不定式的一般式指动作的“将来性”或“后时性”，表示动作在将来即谓语动作之后发生。）
特别提醒：
⑴正像有些谓语动词常用一般时态代替完成时态一样，口语中有时也用非谓语动词的一般式代替完成式。例如：
Nice to know/meet (=have known/met) you.认识你很高兴。
I feel greatly honored to be welcomed (=to have been welcomed) into their society.（2008北京，32）他们欢迎我进入他们的协会，我感到很荣幸。
⑵中心词是the first, the next, the last等序数词，或者中心词被这些词修饰时，常用不定式的一般式代替完成式作定语。因为，说话者意在陈述一种事实，而非强调非谓语动作在谓语动作之前完成。若把不定式变成定语从句，视情况确定从句谓语动词的时态用一般时，或完成时。例如：
They were the last guests to arrive (=who arrived) this morning.他们是今天早上第一批到的客人。
America is one of the first countries to master (=that have mastered) space technology by now. 到现在为止，美国是最初掌握了空间技术的国家之一。
The first mammal to be cloned (=that had been cloned) successfully from an adult cell was Dolly the sheep.（牛津高中英语模块五，P.42，line 8）第一个成功由成年动物细胞克隆出来的动物是一只叫多利的羊。
⑶be to do sth.表示动作在将来发生时具有以下含义：
①表示主语按计划、安排（一般是受人安排）将要做某事，这种事情一般不会改变。例如：
The Prime Minister is to visit the United States next Sunday.首相将在下星期天访问美国。
②was/were to do sth.一是表示主语在当时按计划或安排要做某事，而且从现在看来已经实现了；二是用来回忆在过去某时之后确实发生了某事。这件事情是真实的，经常是注定的或不可避免的。例如：
Then the great day came when he was to march past the palace in the parade.于是那个不平凡的日子到来了，在那一天他要在接受检阅的队伍里通过故宫。（全国高考98，43。指在当时按计划或安排他将要在接受检阅的队伍里通过故宫。）
Thirty years later, this precocious youth was to be the first President of the United States.三十年后，这个早熟的青年当上了第一任总统。（回忆在过去某时之后的三十年，这个早熟的青年当上了第一任总统。）
Those first words were to change my world.我最初学的这些单词后来改变了我的生活天地。（“My teacher”指这些单词注定或不可避免地改变了我的生活天地。）
③表示主语的目的或用意。例如：
The telegram was to say that she had been delayed.电报的意思是说她被耽搁了。
④表示主语必须、应该或不得不做某事（=must/should/ought to/have to）。例如：
All these things are to be (=must/have to be) answered for.所有这一切都必须偿还。
The money with which you were to (=should/ought to) buy dog food is gone, but Spot looks so hungry.）让你们用来买狗食的钱都已经花光了，可是斑点看上去还是这么饿。（牛津高中英语模块一，P.13）
⑤表示主语能够或可以做某事（=can/may）。例如：
Such books are to be found in any library.这样的书任何图书馆都能找到。
⑥用于Sth. is to be done表示某事有待将来做（=remains to be done。）例如：
This problem is to be solved next period. Class is over.这个问题有待下节课解决。下课。
⑦用于was/were to be表示后来证实为（=proved/turned out to be）。例如：
He received a blow on the head. At first the injury didn’t worry him, but it was to be very troublesome later.他头部挨了一下，开始时并没有使他担心，可是后来证明很麻烦。
⑧用于真实的或非真实的条件句，表示条件或假设。例如：
If we are to be at the station by nine o’clock, we must go now.如果我们要在9点之前到达车站，就必须现在走。（真实的，用于陈述语气。）
If it were to snow tomorrow, they would not go out.假如明天下雪，他们就不出去了。（非真实的，用虚拟语气。）
⑨用于疑问句，征求对方的意见。例如：
What am I to do then? =What shall/should I do then? 那么，我应该怎么办呢？
What is to be done next? =What shall/should I/we do next? 下一步该怎么办呢？
⑵不定式的进行式表示动作的“正在进行性”、“反复性”或“不间断性”，有时具有“厌烦、批评”等感情色彩。若把不定式的进行式变成句子、从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用“进行时态（现在进行时或过去进行时）”或其它“具有进行时意义”的表达法。例如：
She is said to be studying in America now.（=It is said that she is studying in America now.）据说她现在在美国学习。
She was said to be studying in America then.（=It is/was said that she was studying in America then.）据说她当时在美国学习。
To be writing and reading is a bore.（=It is a bore when you are always writing and reading/keep on writing and reading.）反复地读写是一件烦人的事。
⑶不定式的完成式表示动作的“完成性”或“先时性”。若把不定式的完成式变成句子、从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用“完成时态（现在完成时和过去完成时）”。例如：
To have studied English at least six years “is” the qualification for this position.（=The fact that one has studied English at least six years “is” the qualification for this position.）I don’t know whether you happen to have heard (=it happens that you have heard), but I’m going to study in the U.S.A this September.（2004辽宁，25）我不知道你是否碰巧听到了，不过我是打算今年9月去美国学习的。（不定式的完成式指动作的“先时性”，表示动作在谓语动作之前完成。）
We are glad to have visited so many of your beautiful places in Beijing.（=We are glad that we have visited so many of your beautiful places in Beijing.）非常高兴在北京看了你们那么多的美丽的地方。（不定式的完成式和现在完成时指动作的“先时性”，表示动作在谓语动作之前完成。）
—Is Bob still performing? 鲍勃还演戏吗？
—I’m afraid not; he is said to have left the stage already as he has become an official.（=it is said that he has left）(2005江苏，25)恐怕不演了。据说他当了官已经离开舞台了。（不定式的完成式指动作的“先时性”，表示动作在谓语动作之前完成。）
The crowd cheered wildly at the sight of Liu Xiang, who was reported to have broken the world record in the 110-meter hurdle race.（=The crowd cheered wildly at the sight of Liu Xiang, because it was reported that he had broken the world record in the 110-meter hurdle race.）(2007辽宁，29)看到刘翔，人群立刻欢呼起来，因为据报道，他已经打破了110米栏的世界纪录。（不定式的完成式指动作的“先时性”，表示动作在谓语动作之前完成。）
Doctors claimed to have discovered (=that they had discovered) a cure for the disease.医生声称已经找到了治疗该疾病的方法。（不定式的完成式指动作的“先时性”，表示动作在谓语动作之前完成。）
特别提醒：
⑴was/were to have done和intended/wanted/meant/hoped, etc to have done 句型表示“本来打算要做某事，而实际上没做该事”。它们相当于had intended/wanted, etc to do或intended/wanted, etc to do或was/were going to do或would have done。例如：
They were to have been married in May but had to postpone the wedding until June.他们本来打算/本该在五月份结婚的，但是不得不把婚礼推迟到六月份。
They intended to have gone (= had intended to go/intended to go/were going to go/would have gone) to Arizona but the airport was closed because of kidnapping.他们本来打算去亚利桑那州，但由于绑架事件，机场关闭了。
⑵为了避免重复前面已经出现过的实义动词，常采用不定式的省略形式，用to代替to do (sth.)；用to be代替to be sb./sth./doing sth.；用to have代替to have done sth.；用to have been代替to have been sb./sth./doing sth./done。例如：
—Would you like to see our baby?
—Yes. I’d love to.(代替了to see your baby。)
—Are you a doctor?
—No, but I used to be.（代替了to be a doctor）
—I didn’t tell him the news.
—Oh, you ought to have.(代替了to have told him the news)
—You should have thanked her before you left.
—I meant to , but when I was leaving I couldn’t find her anywhere.（上海高考，2000春。I meant to.等于I had meant to./I meant to have./I was going to./I would have.。它们分别是I meant to thank her/I had meant to thanked her./I meant to have thanked her./I was going to thank her./I would have thanked her.的省略句。）
⑷不定式的完成进行式表示动作的“未完成性”或“刚刚完成性”，指动作已经开始并一直在进行，或仍在进行，或刚刚完成。若把不定式的完成进行式变成句子、从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用“完成进行时态（现在完成进行时和过去完成进行时）”。例如：
He was happy to have been staying （=that he had been staying）with his uncle.
He looked too young to have been publishing books for six years.（=He looked so young as if he hadn’t
been publishing books for six years.I like a house whose window faces south.）我喜欢窗户朝南的房子。（现在分词的一般式指动作的“经常性”，表示动作或状态经常发生。）
Sometimes we need help getting along with others (= when we get along with others).与他人相处时，我们有时候需要帮助。（与上句同义。）
I smell something burning (=that is burning)in the kitchen. Can I call you back in a minute? 我闻到厨房里有糊味，过会儿我在给你打过去。（2007海南·宁夏，全国Ⅰ，29。现在分词的一般式指动作的“正在进行性”，表示动作正在进行。）
At the beginning of class, the noise of desks being opened and closed could be heard outside the classroom.（2007全国Ⅱ，12）开始上课的时候，教室外面都能听到开关课桌的噼啪声。(句意为The desks were being opened and closed at the beginning of class.，动名词的一般式指动作的“进行性”，表示动作正在进行。)
The president is coming, being followed by some foreigners.（=The president is coming and he is being followed by some foreigners./When/While he is coming, the president is being followed by some foreigners.）校长过来了，后面正跟着几个外国人。（现在分词的被动一般式指动作的“被动进行性”，表示动作正在被动进行。）
Listen! The song being sung (=that is being sung) is very popular with the students.听！就是正在唱的这首歌很受学生的欢迎。（现在分词的一般被动式指动作的“被动进行性”，表示动作正在被动进行。）
But the waste being put back (=that is being put) into the river has also been increasing.可是（不断地或反复地）回放到长江的废弃物也在增加。（现在分词的被动一般式指动作的“被动不断性”或“被动反复性”，表示动作不断地或反复地被动进行。）
As soon as the weavers heard the Emperor coming (=that the Emperor was coming), they pretended to work harder than ever.这几个织布工一听说皇帝要来，就装得更加努力织布了。（现在分词的一般式指动作的“将来性”或“后时性”，表示动作在将来即谓语动作之后发生。）
The parents suggested sleeping (=that they should sleep) in the hotel room but their kids were anxious to camp out during the trip.（2006上海春季，29）父母建议旅途中睡在旅馆的房间里，可是孩子们却非常想在外面露营。（动名词的一般式指动作的“将来性”或“后时性”，表示动作在将来即谓语动作之后发生。）
Mum discourages me from chatting online. (牛津高中英语模块5，P.11，=Mum tries to persuade me not to chat online.)妈妈阻止我不要在网上聊天。（动名词的一般式指动作的“将来性”或“后时性”，表示动作在将来即谓语动作之后发生。）
特别提醒：
⑴有时，瞬间动词的动名词的一般式等于动名词的完成式，表示动作的完成。例如：
Paying off the debt (=Having paid off the debt) freed him from all worry. → As he had paid off the debt, he was free from all worry.还请了债务，他烦恼皆无。
⑵动名词的一般式作某些动词的宾语时，相当于动名词的完成式，也指动作的“完成性”，但当强调非谓语动词的动作先于谓语动词的动作时，多用动名词的完成式。这些动词是：acknowledge/admit承认，remember记得，想起来，forget想不起来，忘了，regret后悔，等。例如：
She remembered discussing/having discussed (=that she had discussed) music with a girl, who called herself Joanne.她记得和一个自称Joanne的女孩谈论过。
⑶现在分词being与逻辑主语之间具有系表关系，说明主语的性质、状态或身份时，常被省略，独立主格结构中的being也常被省略。例如：
Being (=As he was) a very tall man, he took hold of the elephant’s ear.他是个大高个，所以抓住了大象的耳朵。
A born teacher (= As she was a born teacher), she dreamed of turning a deaf-blind creature into a useful human being.她是一位天生的老师，向往着把一个又聋又瞎的人变成一个有用人才。
He entered the room, his nose (being) red with cold. = and his nose was red with cold)
⑹动词-ing的完成式表示动作的“完成性”，指动作在主要动作之前已经完成。它侧重动作的先后顺序，并且，两个动作之间往往有一定的时间间隔，所以，它可以和一段时间的状语连用。若把动词-ing的完成式变成句子、从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用“完成时态（after从句用完成时和过去时皆可）”。例如：
Having seen the world sixty years is not enough to make one wise.（=It is not enough to make one wise that one has seen the world six years.）阅历60年也不足以使人睿智。
Having observed the problem for many years (= After he observed/he had observed the problem for many years), he announced that we are now facing the biggest environmental problem of our time他观察了这个问题多年之后宣布，我们现在正面临着这个时代最大的环境问题。
Having been shown the lab (=After we were/had been shown the lab/When we had been shown the lab), we were taken to see the library.我们被领着看了实验室后，又被带着参观了图书馆。
Manatee having been in prison for years（=Because Manatee had been in prison for years）, people couldn’t recognize him at all.由于莫奈特坐牢多年，所以人们根本就认不出他了。
Tony was very unhappy for not having been invited to the party.（=Tony was very unhappy because he had not been invited to the party.）（2000上海，40）托尼因为没有被邀请去参加聚会而很不高兴。
⑺及物动词的过去分词表示动作的“经常性、同时性、完成性（紧接谓语动作完成或在谓语动作之前完成）”。 若把过去分词或过去分词短语变成句子、从句、并列句或并列成分，谓语动词就用相应的“一般时态的被动语态”或“完成时态的被动语态”。注意：过去分词侧重被动的性质、状态，往往意在“叙述”或“说明”做某事的“背景、原因、时间、条件”等，所以，它不能与一段时间的状语连用。另外，为了强调时间或条件，有时过去分词前面会加上连词when, while, once, if等。当表示动作到现在或过去某时为止已经完成时，若把过去分词变成从句，谓语动词就用完成时。不及物动词的过去分词表示“完成”，并且往往已经变成了形容词。例如：
The teacher came into the classroom, followed by some foreigners.（=The teacher came into the classroom and was followed by some foreigners.）老师走进了教室，跟着进来了几个外国人。（与谓语动作同时完成；说明背景，意为：老师是在几个外国人的跟随下进入的教室。）
Written carelessly, the article is full of mistakes.（=As it was written carelessly, the article is full of mistakes.）写得毛糙，文章到处有错。（与谓语动作同时完成；说明原因。）
Whenever asked (=Whenever he is asked), he comes to help me.他每请必来帮忙。（与谓语动作紧接着完成；说明时间。）
Well prepared (=If we are well prepared), we can achieve great things.充分准备好，我们就能成大事。（与谓语动作紧接着完成；说明条件。）
Once seen (=Once it is seen), it can never be forgotten.一旦见了，便难以忘记。（与谓语动作紧接着完成；说明时间和条件。）
It is one of the funniest things found (=that have been found) on the Internet so far this year.这是今年到目前为止在因特网上找到的最滑稽可笑的故事之一。（2008浙江，13。非谓语动作指到目前为止已经完成。）
特别提醒：
done与having been done和being done在时态和语态上的区别。
done具有“同时被动完成性”，它与谓语动作“同时完成”或“紧接着完成”。所以，过去分词不能跟表示时间段的状语。另外，过去分词意在“叙述”或“说明”做某事的背景、原因、时间、条件等。若把done变成从句，从句里用一般时态的被动语态。having been done具有“先时被动完成性”，并且，两个动作之间具有一定的时间间隔。所以，having been done可以跟表示时间段的状语。若把having been done变成状语从句，从句里用完成时态的被动语态，在after从句里可以用一般时态的被动语态。being done具有“同时被动进行性”，表示非谓语动作与谓语动作同时进行。若把being done变成从句、分句或并列成分，就用进行时态。例如：
The teacher came into the classroom, followed by some foreigners.（=The teacher came into the classroom and (at the same time) he was followed by some foreigners.）老师走进了教室，同时跟着进来了几个外国人。
The teacher is coming into the classroom, being followed by some foreigners. （The teacher is coming into the classroom and he is being followed by some foreigners.）老师正在走进教室，身后（正）跟着几个外国人。
Having been used for years (= As it has been used fro years), this machine needs repairing.这台机器使用了多年，需要修理了。（先于与谓语动作被动完成。）
Nanette having been (kept) in prison for years (=Because Nanette had been (kept) in prison for years), people couldn’t recognize him at all.由于莫奈特坐牢多年，人们根本就认不出他来。（先于与谓语动作被动完成。）
When completed (=When it is completed), the canal will connect the river with the lake.运河修好了，就会把这条河与那个湖连起来。（与谓语动作同时被动完成。）
The scientist has copied a human cell, assisted by recent advances in medical science.（=The scientist has copied a human cell, and at that time was assisted by recent advances in medical science.）在医学发展的帮助下，这位科学家复制了一个人类细胞。（与谓语动作同时被动完成。）
Having been shown the lab (=After we were/had been shown the lab/When we had been shown the lab), we were taken to see the library.我们被领着看了实验室后，又被带着参观了图书馆。（先于与谓语动作被动完成。）
I hear they’ve promoted Tom, but he didn’t mention having been promoted when we talked on the phone.（=I hear they’ve promoted Tom, but he didn’t mention that he had been promoted when we talked on the phone.）(2008江西，24)我听说他们给汤姆升职了，但是我们在电话里交谈是他没有提及此事。（先于与谓语动作被动完成。）
以上所讲的非谓语动词在时态和语态上的用法基本上都是一般的用法，在句中用作不同的语法成分的时候，还有变化。请看下文的第四部分。
四、语法作用
谓语动词只能作谓语，非谓语动词当然不能作谓语，但是可以作逻辑谓语和其它的语法成分。不定式和动名词都具有名词性，所以都可以作主语、表语、宾语和同位语。不定式和现在分词都具有形容词性和副词性，所以都可以作定语，补语和状语。过去分词也都具有形容词和副词性，所以也可以作定语、补语和状语。不定式的复合结构常作主语、表语和定语，另外，疑问词+不定式的复合结构还能作宾语；动名词的复合结构作主语、表语和宾语。独立主格结构常作状语或补充说明。
A. 作主语
不定式和动名词具有名词性，都能作主语。常见不定式和动名词的一般式及其复合结构作主语，不定式的进行式和完成式及动名词的完成式也能作主语。
1. 不定式和动名词的一般式
不定式和动名词的一般式都具有一般现在时和一般将来时的特点，能泛指“经常的或一般的行为”，也能特指“将来的或具体的行为”，只不过特指具体的行为时多用不定式，泛指一般的行为时多用动名词；另外，不定式可表示一种“想法”或“条件”，动名词可表示一种“原因”或“事实”。例如：
To read without reflecting is like eating without digesting.（Edmund Burke）学而不思，犹如食而不化。（一般的行为）
Reading a good book is like talking with a lofty person.（Goethe）读一本好书就好像是和高尚的人谈话。（一般的行为）
To act like that is childish.这样做是很幼稚的。（具体的行为）
It’s necessary to be prepared for a job interview. Having the answer ready will be of great help.（2005北京，28）为工作面试做好准备很有必要。准备好答案将会大有帮助。（具体的行为）
To live or to die is a problem.是死还是活着，这是个问题。（想法）
—What made her so upset? 什么事使她如此不开心？
—Losing her job.失去了工作。（原因）
To love others is to be loved.（=If you love others, you will be loved by others.）爱人即爱己。（条件）
Your drinking so much wine is not good for health. =You are drinking so much wine, which is not good for health.你喝那么多酒对身体不好。（事实）
Getting things wrong can be quite embarrassing! (牛津高中英语模块五，P.35, lines 31-32)一旦出错可能会非常尴尬。（条件）
2. 不定式的进行式
不定式的进行式具有进行时的特点，常指动作的进行性或反复性，并常带有一定的感情色彩。例如：
To be writing and reading is a bore.反复地读写是一件烦人的事。(不定式的进行式指动作的“反复性”，表示动作反复发生，同时又具有厌烦的感情色彩。)
3. 不定式的完成式和动名词的完成式
不定式的完成式和动名词的完成式都表示动作的完成，作主语时区别不大。例如：
To have studied English at least six years “is” the qualification for this position.至少学习英语6年才有资格应聘这个职位。
Having seen the world sixty years is not enough to make one wise.阅历60年也不足以使人睿智。
4. 不定式和动名词的复合结构
不定式的复合结构“疑问词+to do”和“for sb to do”，及动名词的复合结构“sb’s doing”也能作主语。例如：
How to make our life longer is a big problem.怎样延长寿命是一个大问题。
For you to swim in this river is dangerous.你在这条河里游泳很危险。（书面常用）
5. it作形式主语
不定式和动名词都可以借助it作形式主语，特别是在一些固定句型中。例如：
It is dangerous for you to swim in this river.（=To swim in this river is dangerous for you./For you to swim in this river is dangerous.）
It is dangerous your swimming in this river.（=Your swimming in this river is dangerous.）
It作形式主语的常用句型：
⑴It is worthwhile/worth while doing sth./to do sth.值得做某事/It is worth one’s while doing sth./to do sth.值得某人做某事。例如：
It is worthwhile praising/to praise him.他值得表扬。
It is worth our while praising/to praise him.他值得我们表扬。
⑵It is worth/interesting/funny/hopeless/no use/much use/no good/much good/useless/a wonder/a waste of time… doing sth.（很少用to do sth）做某事值得等。例如：
It is no use crying over the spilt milk.牛奶打翻了，哭也没有用。/覆水难收。
⑶It feels adj. doing sth./to be doing sth./to do sth.做某事感觉怎么样（现在分词和不定式的进行式含有“动作的正在进行”之意，不定式的一般式有“能够”或“如果”之意。）例如：
I shut my eyes. It felt good lying on the ground.我闭上眼睛，躺在地上感觉很舒服。
It feels strange to be visiting the place again after all these years.时隔多年旧地重访使人感到很新奇’s work.在一天的辛苦工作之后，坐在电视机前真是感觉好极了。
⑷It appears/seems/sounds adj. (for sb.) to do (sth.)某人做某事好像/似乎/听起来……。例如：
It seems difficult for man to fly with wings in the sky. 人用翅膀在空中飞行似乎很难。
⑸It costs/takes/needs/requires sb. sth. to do sth./It costs/takes/needs/requires sth. for sb. to do sth.某人做某事花费/需要某事物。例如：
It cost me a lot of time to complete the dictionary. /It cost a lot of time for me to complete the dictionary.完成这部词典花了我许多时间。
⑹There is no doing sth.做某事不可能，没有办法做某事。例如：
There is no telling/saying what he is going to do.说出他要干什么是不可能的。There’s no reasoning with him.没有办法给他讲理。
⑺There is no use/good doing sth.做某事没用不好：There is no use crying over spilt milk.
⑻It is adj. for/of sb to do sth.做某事是……/某人做某事是……。例如：
It’s important (for us) to study English.（我们）学习英语很重要。
It’s very kind of you to help me.非常感谢你帮助我。
注：在“It is + adj for/of sb to do sth”句型中，当形容词对“人”进行评价，说明此人具有什么样的性格、品质、气质、能力等特点时，用of；对“事”进行评价，说明此事对人具有什么样的好处，多么的重要等特点时，用for。例如：
It was stupid of her to make such a mistake. → She was stupid to make such a mistake.她犯这样的错误很愚蠢。（不能说：To make such a mistake was stupid of her./Of her to make such a mistake was stupid./It was stupid that she made such a mistake.因为of sb.不是to do sth.的逻辑主语。）
It is important for us to study English. → To study English is important for us./For us to study English is important./It is important that we (should) study English.我们学习英语很重要。
常见评价人的形容词有：kind/good/nice（友好的）, honest, brave, careful, careless, (un)fair, polite, rude, clever, (un)wise, silly, stupid, selfish, thoughtful, etc
常见评价事的形容词有：important, (un)necessary, (im)possible, strange, natural, easy（容易的），nice（令人高兴的），good（有好处的），etc。还有：of importance/no good/no use/no help等也能用来评价事。
right和wrong跟of sb.和for sb.词意相同，但说话的目的不同。例如：
It was quite right of the conductor to refuse to have the drunken man on the bus.售票员拒绝那个醉汉上车是对的。（旨在表扬售票员，因为他做了一件对全体乘车人员有益的事。）
Lincoln said that it was not right for the South to break away from the Union.林肯说，南方从合众国分裂出去是不对的。（说话者的意图不是批评南方，而是说南方从合众国分裂出去这件事情美国政府和人民是绝对不允许的。）
注意这种句型的其他三个问题：
①这种句型可用于感叹句和含it作形式宾语的句子。如：
How stupid of me it was to leave the map behind!我真蠢，竟忘记带地图了！
How nice it was for George to get the money!乔治拿到了钱真实太好了！
This has made it necessary for agriculture and industry to develop very quickly.这就使得工农业必须快速发展。
②在口语或特定的上下文中，以上句型中的有些成分可以省略。如：
Nice to meet you. (= It’s nice for me to meet you./How nice it is for me to meet you!) 见到你真高兴。
To sell such a suit as that to a millionaire! (=It’s foolish of Tod to sell such a suit as that to a millionaire./How foolish of Tod it was to sell such a suit as that to a millionaire!)把一套那样的衣服卖给一位百万富翁，真蠢！
③在it作形式主语的句型中，如果作表语的是名词，而不是形容词，只能用for，不能用of。如：
It’s bad manners for a student to come late to class.学生上课迟到是不礼貌的行为。
B. 作表语
1.不定式和动名词的一般式作表语的区别：
⑴不定式和动名词作表语说明主语的“内容”，即说明主语本身是什么，回答what或doing what的问题，主语和表语的位置可以互换。例如：
What is his job/Doing what is his job? 他的工作是什么？
His job is teaching/to teach English. (=Teaching/To teach English is his job.)他的工作是教英语。
⑵当表示将来或具体的某次行为时常用不定式，不定式前面还可以有for sb或特殊疑问词；当表示习惯、平时或经常性的动作时常用动名词，但也可以用不定式，动名词前面还可以有其逻辑主语one’s。例如：
Our task now is to increase food production.我们的任务是增加产量。（不是平时或经常增加产量，而是要增加产量。）
This is for you to decide.这由你来决定。
The question is how to put the plan into practice.问题是怎样把计划付诸实施。
What troubles us is our not having any good reference book.令我们烦恼的是我们没有什么好参考书。（指平时我们就没有什么好参考书。）
His wish is to buy a luxurious car in the near future.他的希望是在不远的将来买一辆豪华轿车。What she likes is watching/to watch the children play.她喜欢的是看孩子们玩。（指她平时或经常喜欢看孩子们玩。）
⑶已经变成了形容词的现在分词和过去分词表示主语的性质或状态。例如：
This book is so interesting that everyone is interested in it.这本非常有趣，大家多对它感兴趣。
⑷动名词的完成式表示动作的完成。例如：
Her regret is having tried every means and being abandoned by him.他的麻烦是，一切办法都试过了，却依然贫穷。
特别提醒：
⑴有时用不定式的完成式作表语，但是，它只能与was或were连用，表示主语“本来打算或本来应该要做某事，而实际上没做该事”。 例如：
I was to have seen him last Wednesday but he did not come.我本应该上周三就见到他，但他没来。
⑵be done是系表结构还是被动语态：系表结构表示主语所处的状态，被动语态则表示一个被动的动作。例如：
The children were beautifully dressed for Children’s Day.儿童为过儿童节穿得很漂亮。（系表结构，指当时儿童是美丽着装的状态。）
The children were dressed and taken out for a walk.儿童们被穿上衣服，带出去散步了。（被动语态，指儿童着装的动作已经完成。）
⑶be doing是系表结构还是进行时态：系表结构说明说明主语本身“是什么”，进行时态说明主语“正在做什么”。例如：
His job today is sweeping and cleaning the room.他的工作是打扫房间。（系表结构）
He is sweeping and cleaning the room.他正在打扫房间。（进行时态）
⑷关于不定式的主动语态表示被动意义的，请看上文“三”中的“2.在语态上”。
⑸不定式符号to的省略
当主语部分中有动词do的某种形式时（如：do, did, have/has/had done, to do等），作表语的不定式常省去to。例如：
The only thing I can do is wait and see.我唯一能做的就是等着瞧。
What I really want to do is travel by bike.我真想做的是骑自行车旅游。
⑹come，get和grow与不定式连用的区别。
come可以与任何动词的不定式连用，意为“开始做某事”。尤指随着时间或经历的增长，开始对某人或某事物产生某种感情或看法。例如：
In time you may come to like it here.过段时间，你可能会喜欢上这儿的。
You’ve come to mean a lot to me.你对我开始变得很重要。
get主要与to like/see/know/understand等动词连用，意为“逐渐喜欢/认识/明白/理解等”。它强调一个逐渐的过程。例如：
I’m sure the kids will soon get to like each other.我相信这些孩子很快就会相互喜欢的。
It’ll take a while for you to know everyone.你需要一段时间才能认识大家。
grow主要与to like/hate/fear/respect等动词连用，意为“逐渐开始喜欢/讨厌/害怕/尊敬等”。它强调逐渐改变原来的看法，开始产生新的感觉。例如：
I think you’ll grow to like him when you know him better.我想当你更加理解他的时候，你会逐渐喜欢上他。（2005江西，30）
C. 作宾语
不定式和动名词具有名词性，都能作宾语。但需注意以下几点。
1. 不定式的一般式、进行式和完成式作动词宾语
不定式to do表示动作在将来或在谓语动作之后发生，但不定式“to be +表语”表示主语的性质或身份，它们的逻辑主语是句子的主语。例如：
David threatened to report his neighbor to the police if the damages were not paid.（2009上海，39）大卫威胁着说，如果邻居不赔偿损失，就向警察告发他。
It promises to be cool in the evening.傍晚恐怕会转凉。
She promises to be/become a good wife.她渴望成为一个好太太。
He pretended to be a gentleman, but actually he was a cheat.他装作一个绅士，但事实上是一个骗子。
只能跟to do作宾语的动词和短语动词有：afford负担得起aim目标是；agree同意appear/seem好像，似乎；arrange安排ask请求；beg请求demand要求attempt试图，企图bother费心，尽力；would care希望，想，喜欢；choose决定，喜欢；claim宣称，声称；dare敢；decide/determine决定refuse/decline拒绝；plan计划prepare准备desire/long希望，渴望；fail不能happen碰巧hesitate犹豫manage设法seek设法，试图；think设法，料想到；offer愿意；volunteer自愿pretend假装promise/undertake答应，许诺，保证；swear发誓He pretended to be reading when his mother came in.他妈妈进来时，他装作看书的样子。
能跟不定式的进行式作宾语的动词有：appear/seem, claim, happen/chance, pretend等。
不定式的完成式表示动作在谓语动作之前已经完成。例如：
Do let your mother know all the truth. She appears to have been told everything.（2001上海，29）一定要让你妈妈知道真相。她好像已经知道了一切。
I don’t know whether you happen to have heard, but I’m going to study in the U.S.A. this September.（2004辽宁，25）不知你是否碰巧听说过，我打算今年9月去美国学习。
He pretended to have seen the magic clothes.（=He pretended that he had seen the magic clothes.）他假装已经看见了魔布。
能跟不定式的完成式作宾语的动词有：appear/seem，claim，happen/chance, pretend等。
特别提醒：
⑴有些动词常用其一般过去时跟不定式的完成式作宾语表示一种未实现的愿望或想法。这时，这种“动词+to have done”等于该“动词的过去完成时+to do”，或该“动词的一般过去时+to do”（多用于现代英语，尤其是美国英语），或was/were going to do或would have done。汉译为“本来想、本来打算等做某事”（而实际上没能做或没有做）。这类动词有：intend, mean, hope, plan, suppose, think, try, want等。例如：
I intended to have called on you (=had intended to call on you/ intended to call on you/was going to call on you/would have called on you), but something happened. 我本来打算去看你，开始发生了一件事。
They had wanted to help but could not get here in time.他们本想来帮忙，却没能及时赶到这里。
I meant to phone you earlier, but I didn’t have time.我本想早给你打电话，可是我那时没有时间。
Last Sunday we were going to go for a picnic but it rained.上个星期天我们本来打算去郊游的，可是下雨了。
⑵为了避免重复前面已经出现过的动词，常省去不定式中的动词及其宾语或表语，只保留to。但是，to be，to have和to have been都不省略。例如：
—Would you like to see our baby?
—Yes. I’d love to. (虽然从语法上讲，I’d love to see your baby./I’d love to do so/that/it.都对，但是，人们实际上不这样说。)
I would mend your radio, but I don’t know how to.
Why didn’t you come at eight? You were told to.
—Are you a doctor?
—No, but I used to be.
—I didn’t tell him the news.
—Oh, you ought to have.
—You should have thanked her before you left.
—I meant
, but when I was leaving I couldn’t find her anywhere.
A. to do
B. to
C. doing
D. doing so（上海高考，2000春）
答案是B。I meant to. 是 I meant to thank her.的省略形式。也可用I meant to have.回答，它是I meant to have thanked her.的省略形式。也可用I had meant to回答，它是I had meant to thanked her.的省略形式。也可用I was going to.回答，它是I was going to thank her.的省略形式。实际上，也可用I would have.回答，它是I would have thanked her (if I had found her).的省略形式。注意：不能用I would.回答，因为I would是I would thank her.的省略形式。would do sth不能表示“本来想、本来要去做某事”。
2.“疑问词（why除外）+to do”结构作动词宾语
这种结构中的to do也表示动作在将来或在谓语动作之后发生，其逻辑主语是句子的主语。例如：
I’ve worked with children before, so I know what to expect in my new job.（2000全国，19）我以前与孩子们在一起工作过，所以我知道在我的新工作中希望做什么。
You must consider how to take the next step.你必须考虑怎样采取下一步措施。
一般来说，能跟to do作宾语的动词或短语动词都能跟“疑问词+to do”作宾语，但只能跟“疑问词+to do”作宾语的动词很少，笔者仅见consider考虑。另外，what/how about也可以跟“疑问词+不定式的一般式”。例如：
What about when to leave? （=What about when we leave?）什么时候走呢？
3. 不定式用于下列固定句型中：
⑴Sb. be said, report etc to be/have/lack/do sth.据说某人是/有/缺乏/经常做某事。例如：
When a boy is said to be or to have a best friend (= When it is said that a boy is or has a best friend), it is likely that the two share little about their feelings with one another.（牛津高中英语模块五，P.18, line 22）如果说一个男生是别人的好朋友，或者他有一个好朋友，那有可能这两个人在感情方面其实并没有多少相同之处。
⑵Sb. be said to be able to do sth.据说某人将要做某事。例如：
He is reported to be able to visit our country next week.（=It is said that he will visit our country next week.）据说他下周要访问我国。
⑶Sb. be said, etc to be doing sth.据说某人正在做某事。例如：
They are said to be researching into the question.（=It is said that they are researching into the question.）据说他们现在正在研究这个问题。
They were reported to be sailing in the Pacific.（=It was reported that they were sailing in the Pacific.）据报道他们当时正在太平洋上航行。
⑷Sb. be said, etc to have done sth.据说某人做了某事。例如：
—Is Bob still performing? 鲍勃还演戏吗？
—I’m afraid not; he is said to have left the stage already as he has become an official.（=it is said that he has left）(2005江苏，25)恐怕不演了。据说他当了官已经离开舞台了。
At least one policeman was said to have been injured in the accident.（=It is said that at least one policeman was injured in the accident.）据说至少有一位警察在这起事故中受伤。
It was said to have been built from their own designs.（=It is said that it was built from their own designs.）据说这是由他们自己设计建造的。
⑸There be said/known/supposed, etc to be sb./sth.据说有/据了解有/应该等有某人或某事物。例如：
There is said to be a secret tunnel beneath the building.（=It is said that there is a secret tunnel beneath the building.）据说这幢大楼下面有一条秘密通道。
There are supposed to be wild animals in the hills.（=It is said that there are animals in the hills.）这山里应有野生动物。
4. 不定式的一般式作形容词的宾语
to do作形容词的宾语常表示动作在将来发生。这时，实际上形容词已经和不定式构成了一个整体。例如：
The meeting is about to begin.会议马上就开始。
跟to do作宾语的形容词有：about即将的，马上的；able有能力的，可以的；unable没有能力的，不可以的；afraid/frightened不敢的，害怕的；anxious/eager急切的，渴望的；brave勇敢的；shy腼腆的；certain/sure一定的，肯定的；content满足的，甘心的；curious急想的，很想的；determined决心的，决意的；due预定的，预期的；fit适合的，合适的；unfit不适合的，不合适的；free自由的；likely可能的；qualified有资格的；quick很快的，性急的；slow慢的，迟缓的；ready准备好的，乐意的；prepared准备好的；willing乐意的；surprised惊奇的；welcome受欢迎的；worthy (to be done)值得的；等。
特别提醒：
⑴有的形容词跟不定式的一般式作宾语表示动作完成，但整个事情尚未结束，尤其是在口语中。这样的形容词常见的有：glad/happy/delighted/pleased高兴的；nice美好的，令人愉快的；等。例如：
I’m glad to see you.（见到了你，但谈话并没有结束。）
⑵有的不定式虽然跟在形容词后，但不是作形容词的宾语，而是作原因或时间状语。例如：
You were silly not to have locked your car.（2004湖南，33）
上例表示因为你没有锁车，所以你很傻。不定式的完成式作原因状语，表示动作在were silly之前发生。
⑶有些形容词后面的不定式等于“介词+动名词结构”。例如：
①be fit to do sth.=be fit for doing sth.适合做某事
②be ready to do sth.=be ready for doing sth.准备好做某事
③be right/wrong to do sth.=be right/wrong in doing sth.做某事对/错
④be fortunate to do sth.=be fortunate in doing sth. 幸运做某事
⑤be fit/hot to drink=be fit/hot for drinking能喝/喝起来热
⑵有的形容词跟不定式和“介词+动名词”含义不同。例如：
I am content to work as a teacher.我当老师很满足。
I am content with working as a teacher.我当老师很满意。
Don’t be afraid to ask for help.（=Be brave to ask for help./You must dare to ask for help.）不要怕求人帮忙。
I didn’t mention it because I was afraid of upsetting him.（=I didn’t mention it because I was afraid that I might upset him.）我没有提起那件事，因为我怕他心烦意乱。
We are sure/certain to succeed.（=I’m sure that we will surely/certainly win.）我们一定会赢。
We are sure/certain of winning.（=We will not lose, for we have got well prepared.）我们有把握赢。
5. 不定式的一般式作个别介词的宾语
动词不定式一般不作介词的宾语，但是，可以作“除了……之外”之意的介词but和except的宾语。在but或except后，一般情况下，不定式带to与否取决于介词前有无动词do的某种形式，有则不带，没有则带。但是如果but前面的谓语动词是want或enjoy等，but后面的非谓语动词须根据前面的谓语动词决定用to do或doing。例如：
Sandy could do nothing but admit to his teacher that he was wrong.（2001上海春季，28）山迪We had nothing to do but wait and see.我们只有等着瞧。
Now I want nothing but to lie down and have a sleep.现在我只想躺下睡觉。（受want的制约，用to lie down）
The old man enjoys nothing but watching TV.那位老人指高兴看电视。（受enjoys的制约，用watching）
6. 动名词的一般式和完成式作宾语
动名词可以作介词、及物动词和及物短语动词的宾语。其一般式往往表示动作在将来或在谓语动作之后发生，完成式表示已经完成或在谓语动作之前完成。例如：
Something as simple as drinking some cold water may clear your mind and relieve pressure.（2008上海，35）
Tony was very unhappy for not having been invited to the party.（2000上海，40）
—There is a story here in the paper about a 110-year-old man.
—My goodness! I can’t imagine being that old.（2006江苏，32）
Bill suggested holding a meeting on what to do for the Shanghai Expo during the vacation.（2009上海，35）
I hear they’ve promoted Tom, but he didn’t mention having been promoted when we talked on the phone. （2008江西，24）
—They are quiet, aren’t they?
—Yes. They are accustomed to not talking at meals.（2008江苏，29）
但是，在acknowledge/admit承认；appreciate感激，感谢；remember记得，想起来；forget想不起来，忘了；regret后悔；mention提及，说起，等动词后面作宾语时指动作在谓语动作之前完成。这时，动名词的一般式等于其完成式，但当强调动名词的动作在谓语动作之前完成时，常用动名词的完成式。
只能跟动名词不能跟不定式作宾语的及物动词和及物短语动词有：acknowledge/admit承认recommend/propose建议，提议；advocate拥护，提倡，avoid避免escape避免，逃避consider考虑complete/finish完成delay/postpone推迟，延期；deny否认enjoy喜欢，享受；envy嫉妒excuse/pardon/forgive原谅；fancy想（=feel like）；imagine设想involve包含keep保持mind介意，miss错过practise/practice练习，实习；prevent防止，阻止quit放弃，停止report叙述，报道risk冒险resist经不住，忍不住；cannot tolerate不能容忍； understand理解contribute to贡献object to反对react to对……反应e/get/become used/accustomed to 习惯于be devoted to 献身于be opposed to强烈反对’s mind to专心于；give thought to考虑，思考；look forward to期待’s mind to致力于，全神贯注于；say yes to同意；等。sth.做某事吃力、费劲或有困难；what/how about doing sth.做某事怎么样。例如：
It is worth considering what makes “convenience” foods so popular, and introducing better ones of your own.（2008北京，35）
7. 动名词的复合结构作宾语
动名词的复合结构可以作某些动词、短语动词和所有介词的宾语，其逻辑主语中的名词的所有格可以改用名词，人称代词的所有格可以改用宾格，但不能改用主格。例如：
I forbid Tom’s/Tom/your/you coming into my room. =Tom’s/Your coming into my room is forbidden.（不能说Tom is/You are forbidden coming into my room.但可以说Tom is/You are forbidden to come into my room./Tom is/You are forbidden from coming into my room.）
I thought of the passengers waiting for help.我想到了乘客们在等着救援。（动名词的复合结构作thought of的宾语）
They think of greedy businessmen hiding from their responsibilities to the environment and only think about money.（牛津高中英语模块5，P.23，line 32）他们就会联想到贪婪的商人逃避对环境的责任。
At the beginning of class, the noise of desks being opened and closed could be heard outside the classroom.开始上课时，开关课桌的声音在教室外面都能听得到。（2007全国Ⅱ，12）（动名词的复合结构作介词of的宾语）
I really can’t understand you treating her like that.（2005安徽，34）
The discovery of new evidence led to the thief being caught.（2003上海，37）
—Can I smoke here?
—Sorry. We don’t allow
here.（2007江苏，28）
A. people smoking
B. people smoke
C. to smoke
D. smoking
答案是D。因为allow意为“允许”时跟名词，包括动名词形式的名词，如smoking, parking, cheating等。另外，它还可以跟sb to do (sth.)，但不能跟sb doing (sth.)。
常跟动名词的复合结构作宾语动词和短语动词有：advise，appreciate，suggest，propose，recommend，excuse，pardon，forgive，permit，prevent，mind，understand，lead to，think of等。
8. 动名词和不定式的一般式作宾语意义相同
有些动词既可跟to do也可跟doing作宾语，意义差别不大。这些动词常见的有：begin/start开始；continue继续；cease停止I’d prefer to walk this morning.
⑵谓语动词begin和start已用进行时态时，宾语只用不定式。例如：
It’s beginning to rain.
⑶当宾语是表示人的心里状态或精神活动的动词时，begin和start后用不定式。例如：
I began to understand/see/realize/wonder who had done it.
⑷当强调动作开始时，begin和start后多用to do，说明动作将继续下去时，多用doing。例如：
Tomorrow I begin to work.（只强调工作明天开始）
He began working hard to improve it.（说明为了提高，他要继续努力）
9. 不定式和动名词的一般式作宾语意义不同
有些动词跟to do和doing作宾语意义明显不同。例如：
⑴learn to do sth“学会（了）做某事”；learn doing sth学做（过）某事（不一定学会）
⑵remember to do sth.记住、别忘了要去做某事；remember doing sth.记得/想起了曾经做过某事。
⑶forget to do sth.忘记要去做某事；forget doing sth.忘了做过某事
⑷regret to do sth.抱歉/遗憾要做某事；regret doing/having done sth.后悔/遗憾做了某事。
⑸mean to do sth.打算，想要做某事或有做某事的意图；mean doing sth.意味着、意思是、就是、等于做某事。
⑹try to do sth.设法、试图、努力去做某事；try doing sth.做某事试试看，尝试着做某事。
⑺want to do sth.想做某事；want doing需要被做。
⑻need to do sth.需要做某事；need doing需要被怎么样，等于want/require doing。
⑼cannot help (to)do sth.不能帮助做某事；cannot help doing sth.忍不住、禁不住、情不自禁地做某事或无意中做了某事。
⑽consider how to do sth.考虑怎样做某事；consider doing sth.考虑做某事。（不能说consider to do sth.）
再注意下列易混说法，to do和doing并非都作宾语：
⑴go on to do sth.接着做某事，表示在做完某事后“继续或接着做另外一件事”；go on doing sth.继续不停地做某事，表示“不停地”，也可以表示“暂停后”继续做原来没做完的事，等于go on with sth。
⑵used to do sth.过去经常做某事；be used to do sth.被用来做某事；be/get/become used to doing sth.习惯于做某事。
⑶come running etc跑着来等；come to do sth. 来做某事，开始做某事。
⑷get going/moving etc赶快去，赶快走等；get to see/know/understand etc逐渐明白/知道/理解等
⑸grow doing sth.做某事成长；grow to like/fear/respect etc逐渐开始喜欢/害怕/尊敬等。例如：
Susan wanted to be independent of her parents. She tried living alone, but she didn’t like it and moved back home. (2008湖南，34)
—Robert is indeed a wise man.
—Oh, yes. How often I have regretted not taking his advice!（2007安徽，30）
If you think that treating a woman well means always getting her permission for things, think again.（2006湖南，28）
When asked by the police, he said that he remembered arriving at the party, but not leaving.
I think you’ll grow to like him when you know him better.（2005江西，30）
10. 动名词的一般主动式和不定式的一般被动式作宾语意义相同
三个“需要need/want/require”，一个“值得deserve”跟doing和to be done意义相同，都表示“被动”。例如：
The house needs/wants/requires repairing (=to be repaired).
He deserves praising (=to be praised).
As r result of the serious flood, two-thirds of the buildings in the area need repairing.（2007陕西，9）
D. 作宾语补足语
不定式和分词具有形容词性，都可以作宾语补足语。但须注意以下几点。
1. to do sth.
to do sth作宾语补足语，表示“动作在将来发生”。如advise sb to do sth.劝某人去做某事。能这样用的动词和动词短语有ask请求，beg恳求，request（正式）请求ress极力劝说，敦促，催促，urge力劝，敦促，催促，persuade说服，劝服，allow/permit允许，forbid禁止，cause使得，导致，get使得，促使，lead使得oblige使不得不drive迫使，逼迫，force强制，强迫tell要求，命令，叫，summon传唤inspire鼓舞invite邀请need需要require需要，法规要求train训练sth.和help sb to do sth.中的不定式可省略to。
⑵mean/intend/design sb. to do sth.常用于被动语态be meant/intended/designed to do sth.意为“意在，计划，打算做某事”。
⑶有些动词的宾补to do sth.或not to do sth.可以转换成“介词+动名词”结构。例如：
①advise sb. not to do sth.=advise sb. against doing sth.劝某人不要做某事
②persuade sb. to do sth.=persuade sb. into doing sth.说服某人去做某事；persuade sb. not to do sth.=persuade sb. out of doing sth.说服某人不去做某事
③forbid sb. to do sth.=forbid sb. from doing sth.禁止某人做某事
④warn sb. not to do sth.=warn sb. against doing sth.警告、告诫、提醒某人不要做某事
⑤help sb. to do sth.=help sb. in doing sth.帮助某人做某事
⑷有些动词只能跟“介词+动名词”作宾补，不能跟to do sth.作宾补。例如：
①keep sb. form doing sth.阻止/防止某人做某事（=prevent/stop sb. (from) doing sth.）
②prohibit sb. from doing sth.禁止/阻止某人做某事（=forbid sb. to do sth./ forbid sb. from doing sth. esp. by laws, rules or regulations）
③discourage sb. from doing sth.劝阻某人不要做某事/阻止某人做某事（=persuade sb. not to do sth.）
④accuse sb. of doing sth.指责、指控、控告某人做某事
⑤charge sb. with doing sth.控告、指控某人做某事
2. 不定式“to be +表语”作宾补
有些动词跟宾语后再跟“to be +表语”作宾语补足语，表示“宾语的性质或身份”。这些动词有：believe/ consider/suppose/think认为，judge判断，认为，know知道，find发现，认为，discover发现，发觉，guess估计，feel觉得，imagine设想，想象，recognize承认，show/prove证明，证实，表明，report报告。等。比如，feel sb to be right；suppose sb to be an expert。
特别提醒：
⑴believe, feel, consider, think, judge, find, discover, prove等后面的补足语可省略to be。比如，We consider him (to be) honest.
⑵有些动词除了跟“to be”作宾补外，还能跟“to have done”作宾补，但不能跟“to do”作宾补。这些动词有：believe/consider/judge/suppose认为，show证明/表明，report报告。比如，believe sb to have done sth.认为某人做了某事
⑶个别动词跟to be作宾补，等于“介词+being”。比如，suspect sb. to be=suspect sb. of being怀疑某人是……
3. 现在分词doing sth.作宾补
有些动词跟宾语后再跟“doing sth.”作宾语补足语，表示“宾语正在做某事”。这些动词有：keep使/让/保持，catch抓住，撞见，discover（出乎意料地）发现、碰见或撞见，find 发现，发觉，imagine想象，smell闻到，等。例如：
Carrie went into the kitchen, where she found them giggling together.卡丽走进厨房，发现他们在那儿一齐咯咯地笑。
I caught/discovered him reading my private letter.我撞见他看我的私人信件。
I smell something ______ in the kitchen. Can I call you back in a minute?（2007全国I，29）
A. burning
B. burnt
C. being burnt
D. to be burnt
根据语意“我闻到厨房里有东西烧焦了”和语法“smell sth. v-ing”，以及burn用作不及物动词在此意为“（烹调中的菜等烧焦sb. do sth.。当说“发现某人做过了某事”时，用find/discover that sb. has done sth.句型。比如，I called on her this evening; but I found/discovered she had gone to the country on a visit.今晚我去看他，却发现他已去了乡下访友。
⑵keep sb. doing sth.意为“使某人一直做某事”，而keep sb from doing sth.意为“防止、阻止某人做某事”，=prevent/stop sb (from) doing sth.
4. to do sth.与doing sth.作宾补意义不同
leave和send两个动词既能跟to do作宾补，也能跟doing作宾补，但意义不同。
⑴leave sb. to do sth让某人去做某事、让某人处理某事、把某工作或任务交给某人（to do sth.是主语有意识的目的）；leave sb. doing sth使/让某人处于做某事的状态（doing sth.不一定是主语所要达到的目的）。例如：
I left her to do the decision.我让她做决定。
I’m sorry to have left you waiting for so long time.对不起，让你久等了。
⑵send sb. to do sth.派/送某人去做某事(to do sth表示宾语将去做某事)。send sb. doing sth.使得某人做某事(doing表示宾语由静止状态转向运动状态，并且具有描述性)。例如：
I sent Jean to go get some butter.我叫吉恩去买点黄油来。
The explosion sent glass flying everywhere.爆炸使玻璃到处乱飞。
5. 只能跟do sth.作宾补的动词make和let
make sb do sth有两个意思，一是表示“使、引起、导致某人做某事”，二是表示“强迫、迫使某人做某事”。例如：
That tune makes me want to dance.那支曲子使我想跳舞。/听到那支曲子我就想跳舞。
They made us write it out again ten times.他们强迫我们再写十遍。
let sb do sth意为“让、允许某人做某事”。例如：
Don’t let your boss hear you say that.（=Don’t allow your boss to hear you say that.）不要让你的老板听到我们说这样的事情。
6. do sth.和doing sth.作宾补具有不同的动作意义
有些动词跟do sth.作宾补指动作的“结果”，而跟doing sth.作宾补指动作的“过程”。这些动词和短语动词有：see看见，hear听见，feel感觉，感到，notice注意到，感觉到，observe注意到，看到，watch注视，观看，listen to听，look at看，瞧。等。比如，see sb do sth看到某人做了某事，see sb doing sth看到某人正在做某事。
特别提醒：
⑴see sb. do sth.之类的句型变成被动语态时，原来不带to的不定式要带to。但是，see sb. doing sth.变成被动语态时doing不变。例如：
I saw him come in and sit down.我看见他走了进来坐下了。走了进来坐下了。I saw him lying on the ground.我看见他正躺在地上。正躺在地上。I often heard him sing/singing this song. 我常听见他唱这首歌。
7. 过去分词（done）作宾补
有些动词跟宾语后再跟done作宾语补足语，表示动作“被动完成”。这些动词除了上面的hear, feel, notice, observe, watch, have以外，还有want, wish, expect, like, make, get, keep, leave等。其中，want, wish, expect和like等表示“意图”的动词后的宾补可省去to be，从而使语气更加显得毅然决然。例如：
We want the job (to be) done by the end of this week.我们想这项工作到本周末做完。
8. sb. to do sth.与sb’s doing sth.作宾补
有些动词既能跟sb. to do sth.，也能跟sb.’s doing sth，且意思相同。这些动词有：advise, allow, permit, forbid, recommend, hate等。比如，forbid sb. to do sth.和forbid sb.’s
doing sth.都意为“禁止某人做某事”。但前者是“谓语+宾语+宾补”结构，后者是“谓语+宾语”结构，这个宾语是动名词的复合结构。需要注意的是：动名词的复合结构中的逻辑主语，名词的所有格可以改用名词，人称代词的所有格可以改用宾格，但不能改用主格。另外，前者能用sb.作主语把句子变成被动语态，后者不能。后者只能用动名词的复合结构作主语把句子改成被动语态。例如：
I forbid you to come into my room./You are forbidden to come into my room./I forbid your/you coming into my room./Your coming into my room is forbidden.禁止你进入我的房间。
不能说You are forbidden coming into my room.
9. 只能跟 sb’s doing sth.作宾语不能跟to do sth.作宾补的动词
有些动词只能跟sb’s doing sth.，不能跟sb to do sth.，其中的逻辑主语，名词的所有格可以改用名词，人称代词的所有格可以改用宾格，但不能改用主格。这些动词有mind介意，反对，suggest建议，excuse/pardon/forgive原谅。等。例如：
“Would you mind my coming with you?”he asked, before I had finished speaking.“我跟你一道走走你不在意吗?我还没有说完他就问道。
My friend suggested my getting a job in a bank. My friend suggested getting a job in a bank to me./My friend suggested (that) I (should) get a job in a bank.）我的朋友建议我在银行找个工作。Excuse my opening your letter by mistake.（=Excuse me for my opening your letter by mistake.）原谅我错拆了你的信。sth.
⑵ keep/discourage/prohibit sb from doing sth.
11. spend/waste time/money (in) doing sth.与spend/waste time/money to do sth.
这两个句型意思相同，都表示“花时间或浪费时间做某事”，但前者常用，后者少见。spend/waste time/money (in) doing sth.等于spend/waste time/money on sth.。例如：
Darwin spent more than twenty years (working) on his theory of evolution.达尔文花了二十余年时间研究他的进化论。kept) us laughing all through the meal.他使我们在吃饭过程中自始至终笑个不停。
If you don’t get out of my house, I’ll have (=get) you arrested (by the police).你要是不从我家里滚开，我就叫警察把你抓起来。
We had our photo taken by a passer-by. (=We had a passer-by take our photo.)我们请了一个路人为我们照相。
⑵ 从非谓语动词所表示的动作所发生的时间上看，do 和done表示动作的“完成”，而doing表示动作的“进行”，或“正在进行”或“一直进行”或“连续不断的进行”。从这一点上看，have的这一句型与see（看见）的句型相同。如上文例句中的fill out a form含“填好表”之意，arrested含“被抓起来”之意，而laughing则意为“一直笑个不停”。再如：
It’s lovely to have (=make) people smile at you in the street.在街上，人们朝你微笑是件非常愉快的事。（如果笑脸僵住不笑了，则不是件愉快的事了）
I really must have (=get) my watch repaired.我真的一定得把表拿去修了。（表得修好）
I woke up in the night and found we had water dripping through the ceiling.我夜里醒来，发现天花板在滴水。（指当时正在或一直在滴水，去掉we had，句子更简练）
I’ll have (=get) the car going.我要把车发动起来。（车子要连续不断地运行，而不是转动几下就熄火）
Don’t have (=keep) the lights burning all night long.不要让灯彻夜亮着。（意指要加以控制，或睡前要关灯）
I have a car waiting for me.(=There is a car waiting for me.)我有车在等我。
Although the farm is large, my Dad has only two men working for him (= employs/hires only two men to work for him) .虽然农场很大，我爸爸只雇了两个人为他干活。（表示一直为他干活）
注：⑴ 有时很难分清动作是“完成”还是“进行”，所以do和doing都可以。例如：
I won’t have you tell/telling me what to do.你要指挥我，我不听你的。
⑵ have sth. done其中的事情，既可表示“别人做”，又可表示“自己做”，或“自己参与去做”，也可指不好的事。例如：
She’s having her eyes tested..她正在检查眼睛。（医生为她做检查）
Xiao Lin has had his hand burned.小林烫着了手。（自己烫着的手）
We must have our classroom thoroughly cleaned this afternoon.今天下午我们要对教室进行大扫除。（说话者要参加）
⑶ have sb. do sth.还有“想让某人做某事”之意，这时，多与will或would连用。例如：
What will/would you have me say? (= What do you want me/would you like me to say?)你想让我说什么？
⑷ 这三个句型与won’t，can’t, be not going to连用，或have not用于进行时态，表示“不允许”或“不能让”。例如：
I won’t/can’t have him cheat me.我不能让他欺骗我。
I won’t have you running around in the house.我不允许你在屋子里跑来跑去。
I’m not going to have him mixed up with this sort of business.我不能让他卷入这样的事。
I’m not having you running all over the place.不许你在此到处乱跑。
We won’t have anything said against the Party.我们不许有人有任何攻击党的行为。
再请看have sb. to do sth.和have sth. to do的区别。
这两个句型中的have都是“有动词”，不定式都是作定语，其逻辑主语可以是它所修饰的词，也可以是句中的主语。例如：
I have a baby to take care of.(=I have a baby whom I have to take care of.)我有个婴儿要照顾。（不定式的逻辑主语是I，逻辑宾语是它所修饰的词baby）
The orphan had no one to take care of him apart from his uncle.(= The orphan had no one that could take care of him apart from his uncle.)那个孤儿除了他叔父之外，无人照顾。（不定式的逻辑主语是它所修饰的词no one，不定式无逻辑宾语，因为它有自己的宾语him）
I have a meeting to attend.(=I have a meeting that I’ll have to attend.)我有个会议要参加。
13. 作宾补时不定式的省略
为了避免重复前面已经出现过的动词，常省去不定式中的动词及其宾语，只保留to。但是，to be，to have和to have been都不省略。例如：
The boy wanted to play football in the street, but his mother told him not to.那小男孩想到大街上去踢足球，但是他妈妈不叫他去。
E. 作定语
1. to do和to be done
它们作定语常具有“后时性”，表示“其动作在谓语动作之后发生”，且多具有情态意义，与被修饰的词之间具有动宾关系、主谓关系和补充说明的关系。当修饰the first, next, last等序数词时，表示动作的“完成”或“已经发生”。例如：
I have a meeting to attend (=that I will/must/have to attend）.我有个会要出席。（动宾关系）
Please tell me the subject to be discussed (=which will be/will have to be discussed) at the next meeting.请告诉我要讨论的话题。（主谓关系）
She had only 1.87 dollars with which to buy Jim (= with which she could buy Jim), her husband a present.她只有1.87美元来为吉姆，她的丈夫，买件礼物。（补充说明的关系）
Tom was the first to come (=who came) to the classroom this morning.汤姆是今天早上第一个到教师的。（come的动作已经发生）
2. to do还是to be done
用to do是省掉了for sb.；用to be done是省掉了by sb.。因为不定式动作的执行者非常明显，省掉后不影响理解或不会造成误解。另外，有时加上for sb.或by sb.反而显得句子累赘。例如：
Do you have anything important to do today? 今天你有什么重要的事情要做吗？
I’m going to the post office. Do you have any letter to be posted, Mary?/Do you have any letter for me to post, Mary?我去邮局，你有信要寄吗，玛丽？
特别提醒：
⑴“介词 + whom（指人）/介词 + which（指物）to do sth.”结构作定语。
He is the best man from whom to get the news. → He is the best man from whom we can get the news.他是能够得到消息的最佳人选。
She had only ＄1.87 with which to buy Jim, her husband, a present.她只有1.87美元能够用来给她的丈夫——吉姆，买一件礼物。
⑵当不定式与被修饰的词之间具有动宾关系时，不及物动词的不定式往往需要加上适当的介词。如：She is a very nice person to work with.她是一个非常适合合作的人。
⑶如果被修饰的词是表示“时间、地点（只限place）、方式、钱”，习惯上不定式后不加介词。例如：
It’s time to get up.该起床了。
He had no money and no place to live.他那时没有钱，也没有地方住。
That will be the best way to solve the problem.那将是解决问题的最佳方法。
He is looking for a hotel to stay at.他在找一家旅馆住。（at不能省略）
3. to have done和to have been done
它们作定语具有“先时性”，表示动作在谓语动词的动作之前完成，与被修饰的词之间具有主谓关系。例如：
So you are the one to have cleaned (=who have cleaned) all these rooms.这么说，你是那个把所有这些房间打扫干净的人。
Please tell me something about the subject to have been discussed (=that was discussed) at the last meeting.请给我谈谈关于上次会上讨论的那个话题。
4. doing，being done与having done
doing和being done作定语具有“进行性”、“不间断性”、“经常性”或“同时性”，表示动作正在发生、不间断地发生或经常发生，或与谓语动作同时发生，与被修饰的词之间具有主谓关系；having done通常作“非限制性”的定语，实际上它已经失去了定语的作用，起到一种状语或补充说明的作用，所以，往往用逗号与句子的其他成分分开。例如：
The boy standing there (=who is standing there) is a classmate of mine.站在那边的男孩是我的一个同班同学。（进行性）
…not only is the amount of water taken from the river rising, but the waste being put back into the river has also been increasing.不仅长江的取水量在增加，而且回放到长江的废物也在增加。(不间断性)
Asia is the largest continent covering (= which covers) one third of the earth’s land area.亚洲是最大的大陆，它覆盖地球陆地面积的三分之一。（经常性）
He told us to keep a secret of the things being discussed (=which were being discussed)他叫我们为正在讨论的事情保守秘密。（同时性，与told同时发生)
The old man, having worked abroad for twenty years (=who has worked abroad for twenty years), is on the way back to his motherland.（2004江苏，29）这位老人，在国外已经工作了20年，现在就要回国了。（非限制性的定语，起补充说明作用。）
5. done作定语表示动作“已经被动完成”或“没有一定的时间性的被动”，只是说明被修饰词的特征，与被修饰的词之间具有主谓关系。例如：
This is a factory built (=which was built) in 1977.这是一个1977年建的工厂。
He is a man loved and respected (=who is loved and respected) by all.他是一个受到大家爱戴的人。
6. a developed country，a developing country和a sleeping car的区别。
a developed country属于过去分词作定语。过去分词作定语表示“被动和完成”，所以，a developed country =a country that is/has been developed意为“一个发达的国家”；a developing country属于现在分词作定语。现在分词作定语表示“动作正在进行”，所以， a developing country =a country that is developing意为“一个发展中的国家”；a sleeping car属于动名词作定语。动名词作定语表示“作用或用途”，所以，a sleeping car=a car for sleeping or a car used for sleeping意为“一节卧车”。
7. 复合动名词与“名词+现在分词”构成的复合形容词的区别
复合动名词或名词化动名词与由“名词+现在分词”构成的复合形容词作定语意义不同。前者说明中心词自身意义的“来源”；后者说明中心词自身意义的“性质”或者说明中心词是做什么的。例如：
a tiger-hunting event=an event caused by tiger-hunting猎虎事件（复合动名词）
an earthshaking event=an event that is/was shaking the earth震惊世界的事件（复合形容词）
a hand-writing book=a book written by hand手写本（复合动名词）
a fun loving man=a man who loves making fun爱开玩笑的人（复合形容词）
F. 作同位语
只有不定式的一般式和动名词的一般式可以作同位语。动名词作同位语起“解释”作用，等于that is，前面往往有逗号或破折号。动名词的同位语可以是抽象名词，也可以是具体名词。不定式作同位语往往起“限定”作用，等于of doing，前面往往没有逗号；这时，不定式的同位语往往是抽象名词，这些抽象名词通常都是从相应的能与不定式搭配的动词或形容词转化而来的。如attempt努力，尝试，企图，decision决定，determination决心， invitation邀请，promise保证，承诺，proposal建议，refusal拒绝，resolution决定，决心，will意志，wish愿望。等。但有时不定式也和动名词一样，起“解释”作用，这时被解释的名词往往不是抽象名词。例如：
My job, teaching (=that is) children of five to draw, is very interesting.我的工作，教五岁的孩子画画，很有趣。
I became interested in his idea—doing experiments on the panda itself.我对他的想法感兴趣，他的想法是在熊猫身上做实验。
She has a strong wish to go to college (=of going to college/that she could go to college)他有上大学的强烈愿望。（注意：名词wish后面的to go to college不能改成going to college。）
His anxiety to know the truth is obvious.他想知道真相的焦急心情是显而易见的。
He was disappointed in his plan of earning (=to earn) ten thousand dollars a month.对于一个月挣一万美金的计划他很失望。
The second is connected with the main use the body makes of food—to supply the energy for movement.第二（个事实）与身体对食物的主要利用量有关，即与食物共给身体活动所需要的能量有关。
G. 作状语
作状语的非谓语动词是不定式或分词，动名词不作状语。它们可以作时间状语、原因状语、方式、伴随状语或补充说明、条件状语、目的状语、结果状语、让步状语、描述性状语。不同的非谓语动词形式所表示的时态和语态意义不同。
1. 时间状语：to do, doing, done, having done和having been done
⑴to do常用于情感形容词之后，与主语具有主动的主谓关系，表示其动作与谓语动作同时或几乎同时发生。例如：
We were extremely glad to see（=when we saw）Shenzhou Ⅶ shooting into the sky.看到神州7号直射天空，我们高兴极了。
⑵doing与主语之间具有主动的主谓关系，表示其动作正在进行或与谓语动作同时或几乎同时发生或进行。为了强调时间，有时doing前面加连词when或while。例如：
Hearing the knock on the door (=When they heard /On hearing the knock on the door), they stopped talking.他们听到有人敲门就停止了谈话。
Be careful while/when crossing the street.（=Be careful while/when you are crossing/when you cross the street.）过马路要小心。
⑶done与主语之间具有被动关系，表示其动作与谓语动作“同时完成”或“紧接着完成”。所以它不能与一段时间的状语连用。另外，过去分词意在“叙述”或“说明”做某事的时间，相当于时间状语从句用一般时态。为了强调时间，有时done前面加连词when, whenever, while, once等。例如：
Whenever asked (=Whenever he is asked), he comes to help me.他每请必来帮我。
Once seen (=Once it is seen), it can never be forgotten.见了就难以忘记。
⑷having done与主语之间具有主动关系，having been done与主语之间具有被动关系；两者都表示其动作在谓语动作之前完成，并且两个动作之间具有一定的时间间隔，所以它们可以与一段时间的状语连用。另外，它们侧重说明动作的先后顺序，即非谓语动作在前，谓语动作在后。例如：
Having done her homework (=After she did/she had done/When she had done her homework), she went to bed.她做完作业以后睡的觉。
Having been shown (=After we had been shown) the lab, we were taken to see the library.我们被领着看了实验室，然后又被着参观了图书馆。
Having observed the problem for many years (=After he observed/he had observed the problem for many years), he announced that we are now facing the biggest environmental problem of our time他观察了这个问题多年之后宣布，我们现在正面临着这个时代最大的环境问题。
2. 原因状语：to do，doing，being，done，having done和having been done
⑴to do常用在情感动词和情感形容词的后面，与主语具有主动的主谓关系，表示其动作与谓语动作同时或几乎同时发生，有时可理解为时间状语。例如：
You were silly not to have locked your car. (=You were silly because you had not locked your car.)（2004湖南，33）你没有把车锁上，真傻。
I’m so sorry to hear (=as I hear) your mother is ill.听到你妈妈病了，我很难过。
⑵doing与主语之间具有主动的主谓关系，其动作与谓语动作同时发生；相当于原因状语从句。例如：
Not knowing English (=As/Because he didn’t know English), he couldn’t understand the film.由于不懂英语，他看不懂那部电影。
⑶being与主语之间具有系表关系，说明主语的性质、状态或身份，being常省略；省略后的部分原因的意味更弱，更像同位语。所以，汉语的“因为/由于”二字常不译出来。例如：
Being (=As he was) a very tall man, he took hold of the elephant’s ear.他是个大高个，所以抓住了大象的耳朵。
A born teacher (=As she was a born teacher), she dreamed of turning a deaf-blind creature into a useful human being.她是一位天生的老师，向往着把一个又聋又瞎的人变成一个有用人才。
⑷done与主语之间具有被动的主谓关系，其动作与谓语动作同时或几乎同时发生。例如：
Reminded （=Because he was reminded）not to miss the flight at 15:20, the manager set out for the airport in a hurry.（2009福建，32）因为有人提醒经理不要错过15点20的飞机，所以他才急忙动身前往机场。
Greatly surprised (=Because he was greatly surprised), he couldn’t say a word.他非常吃惊，一句话也说不出来。
注意：已经变成了形容词的过去分词作原因状语时说明主语的性质或状态。例如：
Ideally located （=Because it is ideally located）for Broadway theatres and Fifth Avenue, the New York Park hotel is a favourite with many guests. (2008上海，37)
⑸having done和having been done具有“先时性”，表示其动作在谓语动作之前完成，并且两动作之间具有一定的时间间隔，前者表示主语主动完成，后者表示主语被动完成。例如：
Having failed （=Because we had failed）to reach them on the phone, we sent an email instead（2008重庆，29）我们没能电话联系上他们，就发了一封电子邮件。
Having been used for years (=As it has been used fro years), this machine needs repairing.这台机器使用了多年，需要修理了。
Having been told (=Because she had been told) about it, she wasn’t very surprised at the news.这个消息她已被告知，所以不感到惊讶。
Manatee having been in prison for years（= Because Manatee had been in prison for years）, people couldn’t recognize him at all.由于莫奈特坐牢多年，所以人们根本就认不出他了。
特别提醒：
现在分词seeing与that连用，构成复合连词，引导原因状语从句，意为“因为，由于，鉴于”。that可省略。例如：
Seeing that (=Because) she was going off to sleep, I asked if she’d like that little doll on her bed.（2008北京，24）鉴于她要去睡觉，我问她是否喜欢她床上的那个小洋娃娃。
3. 方式、伴随状语或补充说明：doing和done
doing和done具有“同时性”，表示其动作与谓语动作同时或几乎同时发生或进行。doing作方式状语时，相当于by doing，作伴随状语时，相当于and do；done作方式或伴随状语时，相当于and be done。另外，分词作方式状语时，常后置，也可以前置，作伴随状语时，总是后置。例如：
The teacher entered, following (=by following) some students.老师跟着几个学生进来了。（方式状语）
The teacher entered, followed by some students. (=Followed by some students, the teacher entered./The teacher entered and was followed by some students.)老师进来了，后面跟着几个学生。/老师在几个学生的陪同下进来了。（方式状语）
Help her complete her letter using (=by using) the words in brackets.用括号里的词帮她补全她的这封信。（方式状语）
He traveled on the plane like this, keeping the tortoise hidden in a blanket. (=He traveled on the plane like this, by keeping the tortoise hidden in a blanket./He traveled on the plane like this and kept the tortoise hidden in a blanket. /When he traveled on the plane like this, he kept the tortoise hidden in a blanket.)飞机上他就是这般模样，将这只龟藏在毛毯里。（牛津高中英语模块5，P.29；方式或伴随状语）
The hunter lay on his back, his teeth set, his right hand clenched on his breast. 猎人仰卧着，牙关紧闭，右手握成拳头放在胸口。（伴随或方式状语）(=The hunter lay on his back, with his teeth set and his right hand clenched on his breast.)
When he comes back three and half hours later, they’re still sitting on the sofa, absorbed in conversation! 可等他三个半小时以后回来，她们俩仍然坐在沙发上，沉浸在谈话中！（牛津高中英语模块五，P.18，lines 3-6；补充说明）
He was busy writing a story, only ____ once in a while to smoke a cigarette. (2008辽宁，27)
A. to stop
B. stopping
C. to have slopped D. having stopped
答案是B。根据句意知道是现在分词作伴随状语，而不是不定式作意想不到的结果状语。所以B对，A错。另外stopping与busy writing同时发生，符合题意，to stop在busy writing之后发生，不符合题意。
注意：现在分词在表语后面作伴随状语，表示其动作与谓语动作同时或几乎同时发生；不定式在表语后面作目的状语，表示其动作在谓语动作之后发生。例如：
Talk to your friend and I’m sure that before long, you’ll be back playing football together. (牛津高中英语模块五，P.5)去找你的朋友谈谈，我相信不久你们就会又在一起踢足球了。
Today, social expert Zhang Ying is here to tell you to relax because there are many ways to meet people and make new friends. (牛津高中英语模块五，P.12)与人见面和结交新朋友有许多方法，今天，社交专家张英在这里将告诉你如何放松。
4. 条件状语：to do, doing和done
⑴to do多表示假设，相当于虚拟语气的条件句，这时谓语部分常有would；也可以表示真实的条件，相当于真实条件句，这时谓语部分常有will。其肯定式位于句首或句末皆可，而否定式多置于句尾。例如：
To look at her（=If you were to look at her）, you would think her a young woman, but she is in fact 47 years old.如果你看她，你会认为她是个年轻女子，可实际上她47岁了。
To be with him (=If you are with him), you will feel safe.只要与他在一起，你就会有安全感。
You will do better to get her support.得到她的支持，你会干得更好。
He would have given anything to be friends with Rose.（=if he had been friends with Rose, but in fact he was not her friends.）要是那时他能跟罗丝交上朋友的话，他是什么都愿意付出的。
One will get into trouble to do such a thing（= if one should do such a thing）.做这样的事会惹麻烦的。
One would be careless not to see the mistake（=if one should not see the mistake/without seeing the mistake）.看不出这样的错误，那简直是太粗心了。
⑵doing总是表示真实的条件，相当于真实条件句，位置一定在句首或在句子的前半部分。例如：
Working hard (=If you work hard), you will succeed.努力工作，你就会成功。
Turning to the left (=If you turn to the left), you will see the post office.向左一转，你就看见邮局了。
Time permitting (=If time permits), we shall go there on foot.时间许可的话，我们就步行去。
⑶done既能表示真实条件，也能表示虚拟条件，但语态上表示被动，时态上表示完成。另外，为了强调条件，有时分词前面加连词if或unless等。例如：
United (=If we are united), we stand; divided (=if we are divided), we fall.团结就是胜利，分裂必然失败。（真实条件）
Given more attention (=If they had been given more attention), the trees could have grown better.多给呵护，这些树本来会长得更好。（虚拟条件，与过去事实相反；90全国高考，33）
The flowers his friend gave him will die unless watered (=unless they are watered) every day.他朋友给他的花如果不天天浇水会死的。（真实条件；2007四川，35）
特别提醒：
⑴有的现在分词已经成了介词，与that搭配构成复合连词，个别的还能作副词，引导条件状语，多表示真实的条件，有的也表示虚拟的条件。比如，介词：supposing如果，假如；wanting没有，缺乏；failing如果没有，如果……不在，如果……不行的话；considering考虑到，就……而论，照……来看。复合连词：considering that考虑到，鉴于；providing (that)只要，如果；supposing (that)如果，假如。副词：considering从各方面来看。例如：
Assuming that his story is true, what should we do? 假定他的话是真的，我们应该怎么办？
Supposing (=With) the price to be low, will you buy it? 如果价格低，你买吗？
Wanting (=Without) courage, victory is impossible.缺乏/没有勇气，胜利是不可能的。
Failing (=Without) specific instructions, use your own judgment.如无具体指示，请自行酌办。
Considering (=If considering) his age, the little boy reads very well.考虑到这个小孩子的年纪，他读得是很好的。
Considering (=If we take it into account/consideration that) he’s only just started, he knows quite a lot about it.考虑到他只是刚刚开始，他对此的了解已经不少了。
The little boy reads very well, considering. 从各方面来看，这个小孩子读得是很好的。
Sure you can borrow the car, providing (=if/provided/on condition that) you get it back to me before 10 o’clock.只要你在10点钟之前还我，你当然可以借车。（真实条件）
She was prepared to come, providing that (=if/provided) she might bring her daughter.假如她可以带女儿的话，她是准备来的。（真实条件，指当时。）
Supposing (that) (=If/Suppose) she doesn’t come, what shall we do? 假如她不来，我们怎么办？（真实条件）
Supposing (=If/Suppose) the weather were bad, where would you go? 如果天气不好，你要去哪儿？（虚拟条件）
⑵given可以作过去分词或介词，也可以与that搭配构成复合连词，它们都能引导条件状语。其区别是：作过去分词，given与主语之间具有被动关系，意为“如果被给予，如果有”，谓语动词既可以用陈述语气，也可以用虚拟语气；作介词，不用考虑与主语的关系，意为“如果考虑到”；与that搭配构成复合连词，引导条件状语从句，多用陈述语气。例如：
Given (=If I were given) the chance, I’d do it again.如果还有机会，我会再干一次。（分词）
Given (=If she is given) good weather, our ship will reach Shanghai tomorrow.如果天气好，我们的船明天就到上海。（分词）
Given the general state of his health (=If we take the general state of his health into account), it may take him a while to recover from the operation.他动了手术，如果要全面恢复健康，可能需要一段时间。（介词）
Given that (=If) x equals three, x plus two equals five.如果x 等于3，则x加2等于5。（复合连词）
5. 目的状语：to do和doing
常见to do作目的状语，其形式有：to do, so as to do和in order to do；少见现在分词作目的状语，除非一些固定搭配，如go shopping去购物，for the purpose of doing sth.为了做某事，for the sake of doing sth.为了做某事，in the hope of doing sth./in hope/hopes of doing sth希望做某事，with the intention of doing sth怀着做某事的意图，等。它们与主语之间具有主动的主谓关系，表示其动作在谓语动作之后发生。例如：
—Mum, why do you always make me eat an egg every day? 妈妈，你为什么总是每天叫我吃一个鸡蛋？
—To get enough protein and nutrition as you are growing up.为了获得足够的蛋白质营养，你在长个儿。（99上海，18）
To complete the project in time, the staff were working at weekends.为了及时完成这项工程，全体工作人员周末在工作。（2009天津，4）
She started early (in order) to catch the train. (=She started early so that/in order that she might catch the train.)为赶火车她很早出发了。
She lived in hopes of seeing one of her sons succeed. (=She lived in order to see one of her sons succeed.)她生活的寄托就是希望儿子当中有人能出人头地。
However, some people consider that cloning human embryos with the intention of destroying them shows no respect for human life.但也有人认为，怀着摧毁它们的意图来克隆人类胚胎，这时对人类生命的不尊重。（牛津高中英语模块5，P.42, line 18）
另外，to do sth.作目的状语置于句首和句尾都可以，在句首时，可以用逗号，在句尾时，没有逗号。为了强调目的，或者不会使人误解为不定式作结果状语，往往把to do sth.或in order to do sth.放在句首，或者把in order to do sth.或so as to do sth.置于句尾。试比较：
Last night, he worked deep into the night to/in order to/so as to write a report.=Last night, to/in order to write a report, he worked deep into the night.昨天晚上，为了写一个报告他工作到深夜。
Last night, he worked deep into the night, writing a report. (=Last night, he worked deep into the night and wrote a report.)昨天晚上他工作到深夜，写了一个报告。
To be a winner, you need to give all you have and try your best.为了获胜，你需要竭尽全力。（2009辽宁，27）
6. 结果状语：to do，to be done，doing和having done
⑴表示自然结果和意外结果：不定式表示“意想不到的结䞜”，其ꂯ定形式常与only连用，only起加强语气的作用，否定形式常与never连用，前面常没有逗号；现在分词表示“自然而然的结果”，常与only或thus连用，前面总是有逗号。另外，to do，doing和having done与主语之间都具有主动的主谓关系，to be done与主语之间具有被动的主谓关系。to do，to be done和doing具有“同时性”，表示其动作与谓语动作同时发生；having done表示动作在谓语动作之前完成。再者，不定式作结果状语相当于并列谓语；现在分词作结果状语有时相当于非限制性的定语从句，有时相当于并列谓语。例如：
He hurried to the booking office only to be told that all the tickets had been sold out. (2006陕西，32)
Two years later, his father disappeared, never to be heard from again (=and was never heard from again).两年后，他的父亲不见了，以后再也没有听到他的音信。
There is mud and water everywhere, making (=which makes) it difficult to travel from place to place.（模块六，P.62，lines 15-16）到处都是泥浆和谁，让此地到彼地的行程变得很困难。
Their car was caught in a traffic jam, thus causing (=and thus caused) the delay. (=Their car was caught in a traffic jam. Thus/Therefore/As a result, it caused the delay.)他们的车遭遇了一场交通阻塞，结果或自然造成了延误。
The storm left, having caused a lot of damage to this area. (=The storm left and had caused a lot of damage to this area.)风暴过去了，对该地区已经造成了很大破坏。
⑵表示某种程度的结果：只有不定式可以表示某种程度的结果。它表示主要动作所达到的程度所产生的结果，其用法有以下两种：
①跟在live和be built等动词后面。例如：
He lived to be a very old man.(=He lived up to the time that/when he was an old man.)他活得很长。I’m glad she didn’t live to see/witness the break-up of her daughter’s marriage. (=I’m glad she didn’t live to the time that/when she saw/witnessed the break-up of her daughter’s marriage.)我很欣慰，她没有活着看见她女儿婚姻破裂。
Many of the streets in Disneyland are built to look like streets in the USA in the 1890s. (=Many of the streets in Disneyland are built so that they look like streets in the USA in the 1890s.)迪斯尼乐园里的许多街道修建得好像19世纪90年代的美国街道。（街道修建的式样和质量所产生的结果。）
②跟在某些形容词后面，此时形容词表示说话者对主语的“评论”。常见的形容词有：easy, difficult, hard, convenient，dangerous，nice, fit, good, high, comfortable, heavy, expensive, impossible, safe，unsafe等，并且这些形容词还可以与so as to do, so… as to do, such… as to do, such as to, enough to do或too… to do结构连用。注意：这样用时，不定式的逻辑主语是它前面的for sb.中的sb.，而实际上for sb常被省略，因为不定式动作的执行者常常很明显。不定式的逻辑宾语就是句子的主语，因此，不定式用主动语态。例如：
I like getting up very early in summer. The morning air is so good to breathe.我喜欢夏天早起。呼吸早晨的空气令人心旷神怡。（2008全国I，26；早晨的空气好的程度所产生的结果）
The problem is easy to answer. (=The problem is easy for me/us/you/everyone to answer.)问题容易回答。（问题的难易程度所产生的结果。）
The house is so high and narrow as to resemble a tower.这房子又高又窄，像一座塔。His indifference is such as to make one despair.他如此冷冰冰的，令人感到绝望。The room is big enough to hold one hundred people.这房间大得足以容纳一百人。He had overslept to be late for school. (=He had overslept, so that he was late for school.)他睡过了头，结果上学迟到了。
What have I done to make you so angry? (=What have I done that you should be so angry?) 我做了什么使你那么生气？
7. 让步状语：doing, done和having been done
doing与主语之间具有主动关系；具有“同时性”或“进行性”，表示其动作与谓语动作同时发生或正在进行。done和having been done都与主语之间具有被动关系，都表示“被动完成”，只不过having been done强调动作在谓语动作之前完成。另外，为了强调让步，它们前面可加上连词though等。例如：
Weighing (=Although it weighs) almost 800 jin, the barbell was successfully lifted by him.杠铃重达800斤，却被他成功举起。
Whether sleeping or waking (=Whether he was sleeping or waking), he was not at ease.不管睡着还是醒着，他心都不安。
Although defeated (=Although he was/had been defeated), he showed grace.他虽败犹荣。
The soldier walked very slowly as if having been wounded (=as if he had been wounded).那个士兵走得很慢，好像首了伤似的。
特别提醒：
⑴连词后跟being时，being常常被省略。例如：
Though (being) in her own room, she still felt unsafe.虽然在自己房间里，她仍然感到不安全。
⑵现在分词granting和过去分词granted与that连用，构成复合连词，引导让步状语从句，意为“即使，就算，纵然”。that可省略。例如：
Granted/Granting that you are right, I won’t do it.就算你说的是正确的，我也不打算做那件事。
⑶not doing与without doing作状语的区别：not doing是现在分词的否定式，作状语表示方式、伴随或附加说明、时间、条件、让步、原因或结果，常用逗号与句子的其它成份分开；without doing是“介词+动名词”结构，有时可以把without doing sth.改成without sth.结构。该介词短语作状语常表示方式、伴随或附加说明、条件或转折性的结果，且语气强于not doing，常不用逗号与其它成份分开。例如：
Not understanding its meaning, he asked the teacher to explain the word.因为他不懂该词的意思，所以就去请老师作解释。（原因）
He waited contentedly, not trying to peep at her.他心满意足地等着，没有力图偷看她的表现。（伴随）
These boats catch large numbers of fish without giving them time to lay eggs. (=These boats catch large numbers of fish and don’t give them time to lay eggs.)这些捕捞船捕捞大量的鱼类，根本不给它们时间产卵。（伴随）
You can touch it or even pull its tail without causing it to move or wake up. (=You can touch it or even pull its tail but cannot cause it to move or wake up.)你可以触摸它，甚至可以拉它的尾巴，却不能使它活动或醒来。（转折性结果）
She went out without (wearing) a hat.她出去了，没戴帽子。（伴随或方式）
8. 描述性状语
已经失去了主动意味而具有形容词性的现在分词和已经失去了被动意味而具有形容词性的过去分词经常和形容词一起作描述性状语，说明主语的状态特征，其位置可在句首或句末，常用逗号与句子的其它部分分开。
Surprised and happy, Tony stood up and accepted the prize.托尼又惊又喜，站起来接受了奖品。（2006全国Ⅰ，32）
He reached home at last, tired and hungry.他终于回到了家里，又累又饿。
The wolf dog lies by the gate, very frightening.那条狼狗卧在大门旁，非常吓人。
六、非谓语动词在独立主格中的应用
谓语动词不能用于独立主格结构，而非谓语动词则可以。
非谓语动词作状语，如果不是特殊情况，其逻辑主语就是句子的主语，如果不是，就必须另加一个逻辑主语。这种逻辑主语加逻辑谓语的结构就形成了独立主格结构。总体来讲，“逻辑主语+逻辑谓语”构成独立主格结构。注意，如果逻辑谓语是联系动词，还要跟逻辑表语；如果是及物动词，还要跟宾语。另外，独立主格结构中的非谓语动词being和having been通常被省略。但是，当强调非谓语动词的动作早于谓语动作时，having been不能省略。独立主格结构在句中常作状语，表示时间，条件，原因，伴随或起补充说明的作用。请看以下独立主格结构的四种句型：
⑴逻辑主语+being/having been+逻辑表语（形容词、副词、名词、介词短语）
being是一种联系动词的形式，表示逻辑主语现在或当时的性质或状态。若把独立主格结构变成状语从句，从句中的谓语用一般时态。这时，只要不是在there being句型当中，being常被省略。如果不省略，要么是为了强调，要么是为了读起来顺口；having been表示逻辑主语早于谓语动作的性质或状态。若把独立主格结构变成状语从句，从句中的谓语用完成时态。这时，having been不能省略。例如：
He entered the room, his nose (being) red with cold.他进入了房间，鼻子冻得发红。(伴随状语，=and his nose was red with cold)
They went out of the room, the light (being) out.他们走出了房间，灯随之灭了。(伴随状语，=and the light was out)
The meeting being over, they went to the zoo.会议结束了，他们向动物园走去。（时间状语，=when the meeting was over）She came up, her hair (being) a wreck.她走了进来，头发蓬乱不堪。（伴随状语，= and her hair was a wreck）
Monette having been in prison for years, people couldn’t recognize him at all.莫奈特坐牢多年，人们根本就不能把他认出来。（原因状语，= Because Monette had been in prison for years）
There being nobody else at hand, I had to do it by myself.由于附近没有人，我只得独自干了。(原因状语nobody else at hand)
There having been no rain for a long time, the ground was very dry.因为好长时间没下雨了，地面非常干燥。(原因状语no rain for a long time)
In front of the house was a tall tree, its top (being) well above the tops of the other trees.房子前面是一颗大树，树稍高出了其它树很多。（补充说明，=whose top was well above the tops of the other trees）
⑵逻辑主语+doing (sth.)
doing是一种行为动词的现在分词形式，表示主动，作条件和时间状语时，表示动作在将来发生，若把独立主格结构变成状语从句，从句中的谓语用一般时态；作原因、伴随状语或补充说明时，表示动作与谓语动作同时发生或紧接着发生，若把独立主格结构变成状语从句或并列句，从句中或并列句中的时态要视情况用进行时态或一般时态。例如：
Time/Weather permitting (=If the time/weather permits), we’ll look around the city.条件许可，我们就去逛街。（条件状语）Mary coming back, they discussed it together.玛丽回来，我们就一起讨论。（时间状语，=When Mary came back）
Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed.既然再没人发言，会议就结束了。（原因状语，=Since nobody had any more to say）
He lay on his back, his glaring eyes looking straight upward.他仰面躺着，一双愤怒的眼睛直视上方。（伴随状语，=and his glaring eyes were looking straight upward）
⑶逻辑主语+being to do (sth.)/being to be done
being to do (sth.)或being to be done是一种“将来时态”的形式，表示动作在将来发生。若把独立主格结构变成状语从句䈖并列句，从珥中或并列句中用将来时态。being常被省略。例如：
Here are the first two volumes, the third one (being) to come out next week. 这是头两卷，第三卷下个星期出版。(补充说明，= and the third one is to come/will come next week)
We planted 500 trees today, the rest (being) to be planted tomorrow.我们今天种了500棵树，剩下的明天种。（补充说明，= and the rest are to be planted/will be planted tomorrow）
⑷逻辑主语+being done/having been done
being done是一种“被动语态的一般形式”，having been done是一种“被动语态的完成形式”，它们与逻辑主语之间都具有“被动关系”。一般情况下，两者用法相同，being和having been常被省略。但是，当强调被动的动作先于谓语动作，并且有时间间隔时，用having been done，并且having been 不可省略。例如：
The signal being given (= Once/As soon as the signal was given）, the train started.信号一发出，火车就开了。
The signal having been given for 2 minutes (=After the signal had been given for 2 minutes), the train started.信号发出了2分钟，火车才开。
Her arm (being) badly hurt (=As her arm was badly hurt), she had to go to the doctor.她的胳膊伤得很厉害，她不得不去看医生。
This (being) done (=When/As soon as this was done), he left the room.这件事情做完了，他就离开了房间。
The thief (having been) caught (=As the thief was/had been caught), they felt relieved.小偷抓住了，他们感到放心了。
七、非谓语动词在with/without的复合结构中的应用
谓语动词不能用于with/without的复合结构中，而非谓语动词则可以。
独立主格结构前面还可以加with或without构成“介词+宾语+宾补”的一种复合结构。这样，原独立主格结构中的逻辑主语就成立介词宾语，所以，如果是人称代词主格，就必须改成宾格。这种复合结构中的非谓语动词的作用与意义与在独立主格结构中的作用与意义相同。例如：
With a lot of difficult problems to settle, the newly elected president is having a hard time.有许多问题要解决，新当选的总统日子会不好过。(2002上海春季,37；原因状语，不定式表示动作在将来发生，=As a lot of difficult problems are for him to settle/As there are a lot of difficult problems for him to settle/As he has a lot of difficult problems to settle）
With night coming on, they went home.夜幕降临了，他们就回家了。（伴随状语，现在分词表示动作正在进行，=As night was coming on）
We sat in the courtyard, with the moon rising above the treetops.我们坐在院子里，月亮从树顶上慢慢升起。（伴随状语，现在分词表示动作正在进行，= As the moon was rising above the treetops, we sat in the courtyard.）
He died with his dream unfinished.他带着梦想未能实现的遗憾死了。（伴随状语，过去分词表示动作已经被完成，=and his dream was unfinished）
Without a word more spoken, she left the room.她没有再说一句话，就离开了房间。（伴随或方式状语，过去分词表示动作已经被完成，= She left the room and didn’t say a more word.）
附：1. 非谓语动词的易错点：be seated，seated与being seated
be seated来源于seat oneself。但是，be seated表示状态，意为“坐着”；而seat oneself表示动作，意为“使自己坐下”。过去分词seated来源于be seated，所以它也表示状态，也意为“坐着”。现在分词being seated来源于be seating oneself，所以它表示动作，意为“正在坐下”。请看下面的句子：
Seated at the back, we can’t hear a word.坐在后排，我们一个字也听不到。
该句用过去分词作原因状语，seated表示“主语被动的状态”，与主语we构成一般时态的被动语态或系表结构Because we are seated。不能把seated改成being seated，因为它表示动作正在被动进行，等于说Because we are being seated at the back“我们正在后排坐下”，这样就不太符合句意。也不能把seated改成having been seated，因为它表示动作已经先于谓语动作之前完成，Because we have been seated at the back意为“我们已经被使得在后排坐下”，也与句意不符。也不能把seated改为seating，因为seat是使役动词，需要跟宾语。从语法上讲，可以把seated改为seating ourselves，但句意变了，意为“我们正在使自己坐在后排，所以听不到一个字。”也可以把seated改为having seated ourselves，但句意也变了，意为“我们已经使自己坐在了后排，所以听不到一个字。”
I found some leaders seated at the back of our classroom.我发现几个领导坐在教室的后排。
该句用过去分词作宾语补足语，补足说明宾语的状态。说明几个领导“已经坐下”。seated=that they were seated/that they had seated themselves。如果把seated改为being seated，则说明几个领导“正在坐下。”being seated=that they were seating themselves/seating themselves。
但是，用于祈使句，两者都表示动作。如：Seat yourself! = Be seated! 坐下！与seat用法相同的词还有hide：hide oneself；be hidden。
总之，选择doing，being done，done和having been done作状语的依据是：与主语构成“be done”系表结构用done，“be+n.”等系表结构用doing。与主语具有主动关系、构成一般时态或进行时态用doing。与主语构成进行时态的被动句用being done。与主语构成一般时态的被动句用done，完成时态的被动句用having been done。例如：
He is sitting on the sofa, watching TV and satisfied with a smile on his face. (=He is watching TV. He is satisfied with a smile on his face.)他坐在沙发上，看着电视，脸上露出了满意的微笑。
Look to the right and left when crossing (=when you are crossing/when you cross) the street.过马路时，要环顾左右。
Being a very tall man (=As he was a very tall man), he took hold of the elephant’s ear.他是一个高个，抓住了大象的耳朵。
If playing (=If you play) all day, you’ll not finish your homework on time.整天玩，你不会按时完成作业。
Being used (=As it is being used), this dictionary can’t be lent to anyone.这部字典正在用着，不能外借。
Seen (=When/As it is seen) from the top of the building, the city looks more beautiful.从楼顶看去，这座城市显得更美了。
Having been used (=As it has been used) for years, this machine needs repairing.这台机器已经用了多年，需要修理了。
注：doing，being done和done作定语和补语时也是如此。作定语能与被修饰的词，作补语能与被补足说明的词构成进行时态或一般时态的主动语态的，用doing；构成被动语态的，用being done；构成一般时态的被动语态或系表结构的，用done。例如：
the man absorbed in his work专心工作的人 (The man is/was absorbed in his work.)
hear the song being sung听到有人正在唱这首歌 (The song is being sung.)
the man standing at the window 站在窗前的人(The man is/was standing at the window.)
find an old man seated on the sofa 发现一位老人坐在沙发上(An old man is/was seated on the sofa.)
want the work to be done需要人做这项工作 (The work is to be done.)
2. 怎样做非谓语动词单选题。
做非谓语动词单选题时，第一要读懂题意，第二要注意考点。考点包括语法成分、逻辑主语、时态和语态。做题人尤其要有“时态和语态”观念：看非谓语动词的逻辑主语，确定其语态；参照谓语动作的时间或时间状语，确定其时态。时态和语态都对了，非谓语动词的形式也就对了。例如：
with a difficult situation, Arnold decided to ask his boss for advice.(2005北京春季，34)
A. To face
B. Having faced
C. Faced
D. Facing
该题的意思是：Arnold面临困境，决定向老板请教。考点是考查非谓语动词作原因状语。因此，非谓语动词的逻辑主语就是句子的主语。根据逻辑主语与非谓语动词的关系，确定用被动语态。参照谓语动作的时间，可知非谓语动作与谓语动作同时完成，并且知道：主语是在面临困境的情况下做出的决定。故答案是C。顺便说，如果题干没有介词with，答案应为D。因为语态上，逻辑主语与非谓语动词构成sb. face sth.的关系；时态上表示两个动作同时发生。
Lucy’s new job paid twice as much as she had made
in the restaurant. (2008山东，35)
A. working
B. work
C. to work
D. worked
该题的意思是：露西的新工作所拿的钱是她在餐馆里打工所赚的钱的两倍。考点是考查非谓语动词作时间状语。因此，非谓语动词的逻辑主语就是as从句的主语。根据逻辑主语与非谓语动词的关系，确定用主动语态。参照从句的谓语动作的时间had made (money)，可知非谓语动作与谓语动作同时发生，即“在餐馆里打工”与“赚钱”同时进行。故答案是A。
后话：非谓语动词是我长期以来的关注与研究，匆匆45天成稿，定会有不当或遗漏之处，敬请各位读者指正。