这里所说的语篇与语言学上严格意义的语篇并不完全一致,这里说的语篇是指超句子水平的语段。学生作文中这方面的错误也各式各样,难于归类,其中较常见的有以下几种。
1.离题
一般来说,文章尤其是短篇文章的主题应该单一、突出。但有些学生的作文主题不集中,甚至离题现象常有发生。要使主题集中,一是要在提炼主题上下功夫,行文前要确立相对明确的主题;二是要注意剪材,将无关主题的材料舍弃,做到不蔓不枝。初学写作者尤应防止意多乱文、事杂乱议的现象发生。例如:
In Beijing as in the rest of China, traffic keeps to the right.Traffic problem is one of the most important issues of our daily life.Each person,especially drivers,should know the traffic rules.Traffic Department is paying much attention to the traffic problem,and traffic system is improving.Every year,how-ever,a few people die or get injured in traffic accidents.
首句是主题句,意为与中国其他地方一样,北京的交通都靠右行驶。但段落的主要内容却是北京的交通问题,与段落主题关系不大。整段文字内容不集中,离题现象严重。
2.段落缺乏统一性
段落中的所有句子都必须紧扣主题,所有的论点、事例和细节都要为表现主题服务。能这样做,段落便有了统一性(unity)。如果在叙述或论证过程中,以内容完全不同的另一种议题去替换原来所要叙述或论证的议题,就会出现违反统一性的错误。例如:
Auto racing is a dangerous sport.Every year,some drivers,mechanics,and spectators are killed.Safety precautions are very limited when such high speeds are involved.Football is dangerous,too.
该段的主题是auto racing,反映主导思想的关键词是a dangerous sport,显然段落内容应围绕auto racing展开。但结尾句却引出另一议题Football,这就破坏了段落的统一性。因此,末句应删去。
3.段落缺乏连接手段
话语或篇章,就是指一些意义相关的句子通过一定的承接手段合乎逻辑地组织起来的语义整体。换句话说,要有条理地表达思想,句子排列应该顺理成章,句子间的连接应该丝丝入扣,句子间、段落间的过渡要自然流畅,只有这样,才能准确地表达统一完整的内容。
句子的内部衔接是互相依存,息息相关的。内部衔接的基础是思想内容的连贯性。不管是谁,本事再大,也不能把风马牛不相及的事拉到一起去。所以思维的逻辑性、连贯性是衔接的前提。当然,符合逻辑的思维还必须用衔接紧密的语言表达出来。一段文字接不好,往往是作者忽略了句子的排列顺序,但更多的是作者写作时略去了思维链条上某一个或几个重要环节。如果作者对连贯只是心中有数,而没有用适当的话语写出来,那么即使是细心的读者,看到这样的文字也会如同走入迷宫,茫然不得其要旨。请读下列一组句子。
In the last twenty years or so, some undeveloped countries have increased their food production.Their populations have at the same time grown faster.The standard of living hasnt improved.The increase in food production has been achieved at the expense of using up marginal lands.There has been no gain in the productivity of land labour.
以上每个句子在意义上是关联的,排列次序也是正确的,但仍然没有完全具备篇章的条件,因为句与句之间并没有用合适的连接手段粘合起来,从而看不出意义的重心,把握不住逻辑思维的脉络。而如果在上面这组句子中间加上一些转折词语(transitional words and expressions),显示句与句之间的逻辑关系,这就能贯通思想的脉络,并形成篇章所必须具有的粘着性和连贯性。请看修改后的文字:
In the last twenty years or so,some undeveloped countries have increased their food production.Their populations,however,have at the same time grown faster,and so their standard of living hasnt improved.Whats more, their increase in food production has been achieved at the expense of using up marginal lands.As a result,there has been no gain in the productivity of land labour.
因此,一篇文章要写得语意连贯,除了在写作中要遵循一定的叙事次序外,还要体现在句子与句子之间,段落与段落之间符合逻辑的联系上。要很好地完成这种写作过渡(writing transitions),主要通过下面四种方式,即(1)重复重要的词语(repeating important words);(2)使用代词(using pronouns);(3)重复句型(repeating sentence patterns) ;(4)使用转折词语。
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