中学生阅读学习障碍综述

关于学习障碍的研究在国外已有两百多年的历史。近年来，我国教育工作者在实施素质教育的过程中也对学习障碍问题进行了广泛研究与实验，并取得了显着的效果。21世纪是信息化的时代，信息的爆炸导致知识激增，阅读就成为个体重要的学习和生活技能。而事实上相当一部分人，特别是中学生，存在阅读障碍（或称阅读困难），这不仅使这些学生的语文学习成绩落后，而且严重影响其他学科的学习和终生学习能力的形成。在我国新一轮课程教材改革的大背景下，为了实现学习方式的根本性改变，研究中学生阅读学习障碍，提出有效的解决策略，提高学生阅读学习的能力，具有十分重要的现实意义。

The study of learning disabilities has a history of more than 200 years abroad. In recent years, in the process of implementing quality-oriented education, educators in China have carried out extensive research and experiments on learning disabilities, and achieved remarkable results. The 21st century is an information age. The explosion of information leads to a surge of knowledge. Reading has become an important learning and life skill for individuals. In fact, quite a number of people, especially middle school students, have reading obstacles (or reading difficulties), which not only make these students' Chinese learning performance backward, but also seriously affect the formation of other subjects' learning and lifelong learning ability. In the context of the new round of curriculum reform in China, in order to realize the fundamental change of learning style, it is of great practical significance to study middle school students' reading learning obstacles, put forward effective solutions and improve students' reading learning ability.

一、关于阅读学习的定义

1、 On the definition of reading learning

1、关于学习障碍的定义

1. On the definition of learning disabilities

学习障碍一词产生于1963年。较早也是影响最大的定义是“美国公法94—142的定义”。其定义为：“学习障碍一词是指与理解、运用语言有关的一种或几种心理过程上的异常，以至于使儿童在听、说、读、拼写、思考或数学运算方面现实出能力不足的现象。这些异常包括知觉障碍、脑伤、轻微脑功能失调、阅读障碍和发展性失语症等情形。”这一定义表明，学习障碍是一个心理过程，其表现为特定学习领域中的困难，如：听讲、说话、思考、阅读、运算等。

The term learning disability was coined in 1963. The earlier and most influential definition is "the definition of public law 94-142". It is defined as: "learning disability" refers to one or several mental process abnormalities related to understanding and using language, so that children have insufficient ability in listening, speaking, reading, spelling, thinking or mathematical operation. These abnormalities include sensory impairment, brain injury, mild brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia This definition shows that learning disability is a psychological process, which is manifested by difficulties in specific learning fields, such as listening, speaking, thinking, reading, computing, etc.

美国“全美学习障碍联合会”（NJCLD）于1981年提出关于学习障碍的新定义，其表述为：“学习障碍指在听、说、读、写、推理或数学运算等方面的获取和运用上表现出显着困难的一群不同性质的学习异常者之通称。这些异常现象是个人内在的，一般认为是指中枢神经系统功能失常。”

In 1981, njcld put forward a new definition of learning disabilities, which is expressed as: "learning disabilities refer to a group of learners with different characteristics who have significant difficulties in acquiring and using in listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical operations. These abnormalities are intrinsic to individuals and are generally considered to refer to central nervous system dysfunction. "

世界卫生组织于1989年出版的《国际疾病分类》第10版学习障碍归于发育障碍类别下，称为“学习技能发育障碍”，定义是：“发育的早期阶段起，儿童获得学习技能的正常方式受损。这种损害不是单纯缺乏学习机会的结果，不是智力发育迟缓的结果，也不是后天的脑外伤或疾病的结果。这种障碍来源于认识处理过程的异常，由一组障碍所构成，表现在阅读、拼写、计算和运动功能方面有特殊和明显的损害。”

In 1989, the 10th edition of the international classification of diseases published by the World Health Organization (who), learning disabilities are classified under the category of developmental disorders, called "developmental disorders of learning skills", which is defined as: "from the early stage of development, children's normal way of acquiring learning skills is impaired. This kind of damage is not the result of the lack of learning opportunities, not the result of mental retardation, nor the result of postnatal brain injury or disease. This kind of obstacle comes from the abnormal process of cognitive processing, which is composed of a group of obstacles. It has special and obvious damage in reading, spelling, calculation and motor function. "

1992年，我国台湾教育部提出一个法定的学习障碍的定义：“学习障碍，指在听、说、读、写、算等能力的习得与运用上有显着的困难者。学习障碍可以伴随其他障碍，如感觉障碍、智能不足、情绪困扰；或由环境因素所引起，如文化刺激不足，教学不当所产生得障碍，但不是由前述状况所直接引起的结果。学习障碍通常包括发展性的学习障碍和学业性的学习障碍，前者如注意力缺陷、知觉缺陷、视动协调能力缺陷和记忆力缺陷等，后者如阅读能力障碍、书写能力障碍和数学障碍。”

In 1992, Taiwan's Ministry of education put forward a legal definition of learning disabilities: "learning disabilities refer to those who have significant difficulties in the acquisition and application of listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating and other abilities. Learning disabilities can be accompanied by other barriers, such as sensory barriers, lack of intelligence, emotional distress, or barriers caused by environmental factors, such as lack of cultural stimulation, improper teaching, but not directly caused by the above conditions. Learning disabilities usually include developmental learning disabilities and academic learning disabilities. The former includes attention deficit, perception deficit, visual motor coordination deficit and memory deficit, while the latter includes reading disability, writing disability and mathematics disability

我国学者、北师大刘翔平博士认为：学习障碍是指，智力正常，但由于听、说、读、写、算和沟通技能方面出现落后而导致学习成绩低下的现象，其实质是学习成绩与智力不相匹配。

According to Dr. Liu Xiangping, a Chinese scholar and Peking Normal University, learning disability refers to the phenomenon that the intelligence is normal, but the learning performance is low due to the backward listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating and communication skills. Its essence is that the learning performance does not match the intelligence.

上述关于学习障碍的定义似乎与阅读障碍有些文不对题，但稍加分析我们就会发现其与阅读障碍的联系。在上述定义（或此外的90多条有关学习障碍的定义）中，研究者对学习障碍都有不同的认识和理解，如美国公法94—142的定义认为学习障碍“是指与理解、运用语言有关的一种或几种心理过程上的异常”；美国“全美学习障碍联合会”（NJCLD）将学习障碍从某中“缺陷”和“能力不足”改为“有显着困难”，使定义更具有操作性；世界卫生组织的将学习障碍表述为“学习技能发育障碍”，这实际上将问题指向了方法；而我国台湾的定义将学习障碍分为发展性的学习障碍和学业性的学习障碍，认为学习障碍可以伴随其他障碍，如感觉障碍、智能不足、情绪困扰；或由环境因素所引起，如文化刺激不足，教学不当所产生的障碍。但是，几乎所有关于学习障碍的定义中，都认为阅读障碍是学习障碍的一种。一般认为阅读障碍是学习障碍中最常见的一种障碍。1993年的一项统计资料表明，有80%的学习障碍儿童出现阅读方面的困难。另据统计，美国在发展方面存在障碍的儿童占儿童总数的5、25%，在学习障碍儿童中有至少50%是阅读障碍儿童。可见，阅读障碍儿童所占比例之大。这表明，有关学习障碍研究的理论与实践方面的成果和研究方法可以直接应用于阅读障碍研究，或作为阅读障碍研究的借鉴。

The above definition of learning disabilities seems to be somewhat out of line with reading disabilities, but a little analysis will reveal its connection with reading disabilities. In the above definitions (or more than 90 other definitions of learning disabilities), researchers have different understandings and understandings of learning disabilities. For example, the definition of public law 94-142 of the United States holds that learning disabilities "refers to one or several psychological process abnormalities related to understanding and using language"; the United States "National Association of learning disabilities" (njcld) takes learning disabilities from one to the other "lacks" "Depression" and "lack of ability" are replaced by "having significant difficulties", which makes the definition more operational; the World Health Organization describes learning disabilities as "learning skill development disorders", which actually points to the method; while the definition of Taiwan in China divides learning disabilities into developmental learning disabilities and academic learning disabilities, and considers that learning disabilities can be accompanied by other obstacles, Such as sensory barriers, lack of intelligence, emotional distress, or obstacles caused by environmental factors, such as insufficient cultural stimulation and improper teaching. However, in almost all definitions of learning disabilities, dyslexia is considered to be one of them. Generally speaking, dyslexia is one of the most common learning disabilities. A 1993 statistic shows that 80% of children with learning disabilities have difficulty in reading. According to statistics, 5 and 25% of children in the United States have developmental disabilities, and at least 50% of children with learning disabilities are dyslexic children. It can be seen that the proportion of children with dyslexia is large. This shows that the theoretical and practical achievements and research methods of the study of learning disabilities can be directly applied to the study of reading disorders, or as a reference for the study of reading disorders.

2、关于阅读障碍的定义

2. On the definition of dyslexia

关于阅读障碍的定义有广义和狭义之分。广义的阅读障碍是指所有不能进行正常阅读的状况。广义的阅读障碍分获得性阅读障碍和发展性阅读障碍。前者是指由于后天脑损伤引起的阅读困难，后者是指个体在一般智力、感觉的敏锐性、动机、生活环境和教育条件等方面与其他个体没有差异，也没有明显的脑损伤，但却终生处于阅读困难的状态中。狭义的阅读障碍就是指发展性阅读障碍。一般学校教育中所说的阅读障碍，使之发展性阅读障碍，更确切的说是阅读学习困难。

There are broad and narrow definitions of dyslexia. In a broad sense, dyslexia refers to all situations in which normal reading is not possible. Generally speaking, dyslexia can be divided into acquired dyslexia and developmental dyslexia. The former refers to the reading difficulty caused by the postnatal brain injury, while the latter refers to the situation in which the individual has no difference with other individuals in general intelligence, sensitivity of sensation, motivation, living environment and education conditions, and has no obvious brain injury, but is in the state of reading difficulty all his life. Narrow sense dyslexia refers to developmental dyslexia. Generally speaking, reading disorder in school education makes it a developmental reading disorder, more specifically, reading learning difficulty.

世界神经学协会给特殊发展性阅读障碍下的定义是：“不受传统教学、智力和社会文化因素影响的、表现为学习阅读困难的失调，它依赖于基本的认知障碍，这种认知障碍通常存在某种结构性根源。”

The definition of special developmental dyslexia given by the world Neurology Association is: "dyslexia, which is not affected by traditional teaching, intelligence and social and cultural factors, is manifested as learning and reading difficulties. It depends on basic cognitive disorders, which usually have some structural roots."

所谓“阅读障碍”是指对阅读技能的掌握落后于年龄常模，而落后的原因又不是智力落后、重大脑损伤或严重的情绪不稳定”。（［美］E。J。Gibson）。

The so-called "dyslexia" refers to the fact that the mastery of reading skills lags behind the age norm, and the reasons for the lag are not mental retardation, major brain injury or serious emotional instability. (beauty) e. J. Gibson).

儿童阅读障碍主要包括认字和理解两大部分。具有阅读障碍的儿童在学习过程中一般会出现以下特征：①阅读速度慢，逐字阅读，有时需要用手指的协调；②易出现错读，如跳行、省略、替代、歪曲、添加或颠倒字词；③阅读时停顿次数太多，或者经常不知道读到哪里了；④对短语的成分划分不准确；⑤读后不能回忆阅读的内容；⑥不能从阅读材料中得出结论，即不能概括中心思想；⑦常用常识作为背景，而不是以文章中的材料来回答问题，即答非所问；⑧听写成绩差。

Children's dyslexia mainly includes two parts: reading and understanding. Children with dyslexia generally have the following characteristics in the learning process: ① slow reading speed, word for word reading, sometimes need to use the coordination of fingers; ② prone to misreading, such as skipping, omitting, replacing, distorting, adding or reversing words; ③ too many pauses in reading, or often don't know where to read; ④ inaccurate composition division of phrases; ⑤ after reading Can't recall the content of reading; can't draw a conclusion from the reading materials, that is, can't generalize the central idea; can't use common sense as the background, instead of using the materials in the article to answer the questions, that is, the answers are not what they ask; can't get good dictation results.

也有研究者认为阅读障碍儿童有以下学习困难：

Some researchers also think that children with dyslexia have the following learning difficulties:

1、认字与记字困难重重，刚学过的字就忘记；

1. It is very difficult to recognize and memorize the characters, so I forget the words I just learned;

2、听写成绩很差；

2. Poor dictation;

3、朗读时增字与减字；

3. Add and subtract words when reading aloud;

4、朗读时不按字阅读，而是随意按照自己的想法阅读；

4. When reading aloud, do not read according to words, but read according to your own ideas at will;

5、错别字连篇，写字经常多一笔或少一笔；

5. Write one more or one less stroke often;

6、阅读速度慢；

6. Slow reading speed;

7、逐字阅读或已手指协助；

7. Read word for word or with the help of fingers;

8、说作文可以，但写作文过于简单，内容枯燥；

8. It's OK to say composition, but it's too simple and boring;

9、经常搞混形近的字，如把视预祝弄混；

9. Often mix up the near form of the word, such as the visual wish mix up;

10、经常搞混音近的字；

10. Often mix up near the word;

11、学习拼音困难，经常把Q看成O；

11. It is difficult to learn pinyin. Q is often regarded as O;

12、经常颠倒字的偏旁部首。

12. Often reverse the radical of a word.

三、阅读障碍的成因

3、 The causes of dyslexia

在最初的阅读障碍研究中，人们认为造成阅读障碍的唯一原因是大脑某区域或不同区域之间发生功能失调。随着研究的不断深入，人们发现许多阅读障碍者的问题是纯心因性的，如眼动模式异常、注意集中性、知觉——空间能力、词素——音素转换等。在此基础上人们把发展性阅读障碍分为听觉——语言性阅读障碍和视觉——空间性阅读障碍。

In the initial study of dyslexia, it was thought that the only cause of dyslexia was dysfunction in one area or between different areas of the brain. With the deepening of research, people find that many problems of dyslexic readers are purely due to the abnormal eye movement pattern, attention concentration, perception space ability, morpheme phoneme conversion and so on. On this basis, people divide developmental dyslexia into auditory language dyslexia and visual spatial dyslexia.

关于阅读障碍的心理机制，目前有两种理论。第一种理论为语音加工缺陷理论，第二个理论为词形加工缺陷理论。语音加工缺陷理论认为，阅读障碍实际上是一种语音障碍。持这种理论的一种观点认为，阅读障碍者的问题在于音位表征的缺陷。较早的一项研究发现，正常儿童在学习书面语言以前已经可以正确地将单词分割为音节或者音位等更小的单元，而阅读障碍的儿童在学习书面语言几个月之后还不能顺利完成这种任务。更近的研究利用知觉分类任务发现，阅读障碍者难以对/ｂａ/-/ｄａ/等语音材料进行正确区分。语音加工缺陷理论的另一种观点认为，阅读障碍者并非不能正确地区分音位，而在感知声音的时间特征上缺陷。尽管阅读障碍者不能区分快速呈现的音位，但当降低听觉频率的模式时，其语音识别的正确率可以提高。词形加工缺陷理论认为，阅读障碍主要是由于视知觉缺陷引起的。研究者发现，很多阅读障碍者经常混淆镜像的字母(ｂ/ｄ)和相似的字母(ｍ/ｎ)。这种混淆有时与语音错误同时出现，但在很多情况下，视觉错误经常会单独出现。更近的研究表明阅读障碍者存在空间对比敏感性的缺陷，要觉察到同样的对比度，阅读障碍者所需刺激的空间频率要比正常阅读者低一倍。这些研究者认为，阅读障碍者在词形的整体知觉、词形的细节信息识别、视觉刺激的运动特征的识别等多方面都存在缺陷。从拼音文字的研究进展来看，认为语音缺陷是阅读障碍的主要原因是相对占优势的一种观点。同时研究者还发现，阅读障碍与文字的特点有很大关系。如有的研究者发现，德语儿童的阅读障碍在入学前被诊断为音位分割和语音编码有困难，但到了四年级之后这些困难就不存在了，随之却出现了阅读速度慢和拼写成绩差等问题。英文中阅读障碍者可能终生都具有音位分割和语音编码困难等，研究者认为这是由于德语较英语具有更加一致的形、音对应关系引起的。表意文字系统与拼音文字系统存在更大的差异，汉字具有复杂的两维结构，它由两个或几个部件按照一定的规则组合而成。这就使汉字形、音之间的关系比较随意，而形、义之间的对应关系相对更强。由于受到阅读障碍与文字系统密切相关的思想的影响，研究者曾一度认为汉语中不存在阅读障碍，或者阅读障碍的发生率相当低。但随后的研究却改变了人们最初的看法。如一项问卷调查的研究发现[，中文阅读障碍者与英文阅读障碍的发生率没有显着差异。最近的一项研究发现，中文阅读障碍儿童的发生率并不比拼音文字低。尽管研究者不再怀疑汉语阅读障碍的存在，但对汉语阅读障碍的心理机制的研究还很不成熟，研究结果也不一致。其中的一个分歧是，视觉缺陷是否是造成汉语阅读障碍的原因。如有的研究者认为，汉语阅读障碍儿童不存在非语音的缺陷，语音分析能力缺乏，语音记忆能力差才是造成儿童阅读障碍的主要原因。而另一研究显示，阅读障碍可能与字形识别有关。他们发现对于字形相似的材料，阅读障碍儿童不会呈现语音障碍，只有在字形不同的刺激中才会出现语音障碍。这一结果在日文的研究中得到了印证，如Ｙａｍａｄａ发现日语阅读障碍儿童更多地出现视觉、选择和语义错误，他们认为这是由于日文中存在大量汉字(ｋａｎｊｉ)的缘故。拼音文字的一些研究提出，阅读障碍者在词形的整体知觉、词形的细节信息识别等方面都存在缺陷。汉语阅读障碍的研究表明，阅读障碍者对字形的细节加工方面存在障碍，但目前还没有关于汉语阅读障碍者的字形整体知觉的研究报告，本研究试图对这一问题进行探讨。在实验中，我们利用真假字判断来考查汉字字形整体知觉的加工。考虑到目前还没有诊断汉语阅读障碍个体的明确标准，为了与前人的研究在被试的选择上保持一致，我们还设置了一个语音任务。我们的思路是，尽管语音缺陷还不能断定为汉语阅读障碍的原因，但以往的研究都发现汉语阅读障碍者的反应在语音任务中与正常被试有差异。

There are two theories about the psychological mechanism of dyslexia. The first theory is the defect theory of speech processing, and the second is the defect theory of word shape processing. According to the theory of speech processing defects, dyslexia is actually a kind of speech disorder. According to this theory, the problem of dyslexics lies in the defect of phonemic representation. An earlier study found that normal children can correctly divide words into smaller units such as syllables or phonemes before learning written language, while children with dyslexia can not successfully complete this task months after learning written language. More recent studies using perceptual classification tasks have found that it is difficult for dyslexics to distinguish / BA / - / DA / and other speech materials correctly. Another point of view of the theory of phonological processing defects is that people with reading disabilities are not unable to distinguish phonemes correctly, but are defective in perceiving the temporal characteristics of sound. Although the dyslexic can't distinguish the fast presented phonemes, the accuracy of speech recognition can be improved when the pattern of hearing frequency is reduced. According to the theory of morphological processing defects, dyslexia is mainly caused by visual perception defects. Researchers found that many dyslexics often confuse mirrored letters (B / D) with similar letters (M / N). This kind of confusion sometimes appears at the same time with the speech error, but in many cases, the visual error often appears alone. More recent studies have shown that dyslexic readers have the defect of spatial contrast sensitivity. To detect the same contrast, the spatial frequency of stimuli needed by dyslexic readers is twice lower than that of normal readers. These researchers believe that there are many defects in the whole perception of word form, the recognition of detail information of word form, the recognition of motion characteristics of visual stimulation and so on. From the perspective of the research progress of Pinyin characters, it is considered that the main reason for reading disorder is the phonetic defect, which is a relatively dominant point of view. At the same time, the researchers also found that dyslexia has a lot to do with the characteristics of characters. For example, some researchers have found that German children's dyslexia is diagnosed as phoneme segmentation and speech coding difficulties before entering school, but these difficulties will not exist after the fourth grade, and then there are problems such as slow reading speed and poor spelling performance. In English, dyslexics may have difficulties in phoneme segmentation and speech coding all their lives. The researchers believe that this is due to the fact that German has a more consistent correspondence between form and sound than English. There are more differences between ideographic system and pinyin system. Chinese characters have complex two-dimensional structure, which is composed of two or several parts according to certain rules. This makes the relationship between form and sound of Chinese characters more casual, while the corresponding relationship between form and meaning is relatively stronger. Because of the influence of the thought that dyslexia is closely related to the text system, researchers once thought that there is no dyslexia in Chinese, or the incidence of dyslexia is quite low. But the subsequent research has changed people's original view. For example, a questionnaire survey found that [, there is no significant difference in the incidence of Chinese dyslexia and English dyslexia. A recent study found that the incidence of Chinese dyslexic children is no lower than that of Pinyin. Although researchers no longer doubt the existence of Chinese dyslexia, the research on the psychological mechanism of Chinese dyslexia is still immature, and the results are inconsistent. One of the differences is whether visual defect is the cause of Chinese reading disorder. For example, some researchers think that children with Chinese dyslexia do not have non phonetic defects, lack of speech analysis ability and poor speech memory ability are the main causes of children's dyslexia. Another study shows that dyslexia may be related to font recognition. They found that for materials with similar glyphs, children with dyslexia did not show phonological disorders, only in the stimulation of different glyphs. This result has been confirmed in Japanese studies. For example, Yamada found that children with dyslexia have more visual, choice and semantic errors, which they think is due to the large number of kanji in Japanese. Some researches on pinyin have pointed out that there are defects in the whole perception of word form and the recognition of detailed information of word form. The study of Chinese dyslexia shows that the dyslexics have some difficulties in processing the details of Chinese characters, but there is no report on the whole perception of Chinese characters. This study attempts to explore this problem. In the experiment, we use the true and false word judgment to examine the processing of the whole perception of Chinese characters. Considering that there is no clear standard for diagnosing Chinese dyslexic individuals, we also set up a voice task in order to keep consistent with previous studies in the choice of subjects. Our idea is that although the phonological defects can not be identified as the cause of Chinese reading disorder, previous studies have found that the response of Chinese reading disorder is different from that of normal subjects in the phonological task.

还有研究者认为造成阅读障碍的原因可以分为外部原因和内部原因两大类。

Other researchers believe that the causes of dyslexia can be divided into external causes and internal causes.

（一）外部原因

（1） External causes

1、交际性情绪剥夺。交际性情绪剥夺是指在儿童所处的环境中，缺乏儿童习得语言所必需的适当刺激，因而使儿童不能掌握阅读所必需的语言技能。例如，在母子关系方面，如果母亲因为对儿童漠不关心、态度冷淡而缺乏同儿童进行言语交谈，或者由于母亲情绪低落、脾气乖张而动辄训斥儿童，那么，儿童在语言知识方面多半就会存在缺陷，而且儿童对学习有关语言的作业也会缺乏信心。一个语言知识不足的儿童，学习阅读自然会有困难，Ninio&Brunet(1980)对一对母子做了10个月的观察研究，发现母子交流对儿童语法规则的掌握和句子的阅读有一定的影响。Roser&Martinez(1985)指出双亲在儿童早期阅读能力发展方面具有非常显着的作用。大量的研究证实，对母子间正常交谈的早期剥夺，会使儿童难以获得良好的语言技能。

1. Communicative emotional deprivation. Communicative emotional deprivation refers to the lack of appropriate stimulation necessary for children to acquire language in their environment, so that children cannot master the necessary language skills for reading. For example, in the aspect of mother-child relationship, if the mother is lack of verbal conversation with the child due to her indifference to the child and cold attitude, or scolds the child easily due to her low mood and bad temper, the child will have defects in language knowledge, and the child will also lack confidence in learning related language homework. Ninio & brunet (1980) studied a pair of mothers and children for 10 months, and found that mother-child communication has a certain impact on the mastery of children's grammar rules and sentence reading. Roser & Martinez (1985) pointed out that parents play a very significant role in the development of children's early reading ability. A large number of studies have confirmed that the early deprivation of normal conversation between mother and child will make it difficult for children to acquire good language skills.

2。文化或教育剥夺。文化或教育剥夺是指缺乏某些社会文化经验，而这些经验对于在学校中的学习又至关重要，因此导致了阅读障碍。一般来说，当儿童处于在文化上受剥夺的环境里时，就会缺乏学习阅读所必需的刺激作用。例如，如果家里没有什么书籍，也从未有人读书给儿童听，儿童也从来没有看到家里有人读书，那么，在这种环境中成长的儿童，自然会缺乏对阅读的学习动机和学习阅读的实践机会，阅读障碍必然十分严重。Clay(1966)、Gocdman(1967)、Herste(1984)等研究者的研究引起了人们对给儿童提供有书的环境这一问题的重视，Cullnian(1989)、Dcnelson&Nilscn(1989)Helper&Hickman(1978)等研究者则进一步指出为儿童提供故事书是帮助他们发展语言、学会说话的一个重要因素。

2. Cultural or educational deprivation. Cultural or educational deprivation refers to the lack of certain social and cultural experience, which is essential for learning in schools, and thus leads to reading disorders. Generally speaking, when children are in a culturally deprived environment, they will lack the stimulation necessary for learning to read. For example, if there are no books at home, no one has ever read books to children, and children have never seen anyone read books at home, then children growing up in this environment will naturally lack the learning motivation and practical opportunities to learn to read, and reading obstacles will be very serious. Clay (1966), gocdman (1967), herste (1984) and other researchers have drawn people's attention to the issue of providing children with a Book environment. Cullnian (1989), dcnelson & nilscn (1989) helper & Hickman (1978) and other researchers have further pointed out that providing children with story books is an important factor to help them develop language and learn to speak.

（二）内部原因

（2） Internal causes

1。轻微脑机能障碍。轻微脑机能障碍（以下简称MBD）是指由于损伤而造成的中枢神经系统功能的不规则作用，出生时的脑损伤或神经系统发展关键年龄时的疾病。这种功能异常可以表现为知觉、概念化作用、语言、记忆、注意等各方面缺点的不同组合，从而对阅读过程产生影响。有人认为，在MBD的症状中，成熟的延迟和左侧化不足是出现阅读障碍的原因。Sparron等（1970）曾对阅读障碍儿童和正常儿童单侧化表现上的差异进行了考察。发现阅读障碍儿童和正常儿童在单侧化早期发展方面（如手眼协调）没有差别，但在后期发展的所有指标上（如单侧觉察和手指的分化等）都有差别。P。sate等（1971）考察了不同发展年龄上居于支配地位的各种技能，结果发现，阅读障碍儿童与同龄正常儿童相比，在通常是这一年龄阶段形成的一些技能上（如某些视动整合作业）虽然是有差别的，但在一些后来才会变得熟练的技能上并没有显着差别。应当指出的是，所发现的阅读障碍儿童和正常儿童在发展速度上的差别并不意味着所有的阅读障碍儿童都表现出成熟上的延迟，即使是由MBD导致的阅读障碍也不见得都表现为成熟上的延迟。

1. Mild brain dysfunction. Mild brain dysfunction (hereinafter referred to as MBD) refers to the irregular function of central nervous system caused by injury, brain injury at birth or diseases at critical age of nervous system development. This kind of functional abnormality can be manifested as different combinations of the shortcomings of perception, conceptualization, language, memory, attention and so on, which will affect the reading process. Some people think that in the symptoms of MBD, the delay of maturity and the lack of left side are the causes of dyslexia. Sparron et al. (1970) have investigated the difference of unilateral performance between children with dyslexia and normal children. It was found that there was no difference in the early development of unilateral (such as hand eye coordination) between children with dyslexia and normal children, but there were differences in all indicators of late development (such as unilateral awareness and finger differentiation). P. Sate et al. (1971) examined the dominant skills at different ages of development. The results showed that children with dyslexia, compared with normal children of the same age, had differences in some skills (such as some visual motor integration tasks) usually formed at this age stage, but had no significant differences in some skills that would become proficient later. It should be noted that the difference in development speed between dyslexic children and normal children does not mean that all dyslexic children show delay in maturity, and even the dyslexic children caused by MBD do not show delay in maturity.

由此可见，在阅读障碍儿童中，属于MBD的人数只占很小的百分比。F。W。Owen等（1971）发现在他们研究的304个阅读障碍儿童中，只有4个人可以确诊是属于神经上的缺陷。鉴于对此症状所存在的争议，就很难确定在阅读障碍的儿童中到底有什么人是属于MBD，所以当把一个儿童归入此类病因时必须持谨慎的态度。

It can be seen that only a small percentage of children with dyslexia belong to MBD. F. W. Owen et al. (1971) found that of the 304 children with dyslexia they studied, only four could be diagnosed as having neurological defects. In view of the controversy about this symptom, it is difficult to determine who belongs to MBD in children with dyslexia, so it is necessary to be cautious when classifying a child as one of these causes.

2。遗传因素。遗传因素也是一个人不能学会很好阅读的原因。遗传因素造成阅读障碍既可能是因为它决定了某些技能发展的迟缓，也可能是因为它规定着某些技能所能达到的限度。学习阅读所需要的技能任何发展上的延迟都会推迟儿童对阅读的掌握。一个儿童的能力可能因受到遗传的限制，在知觉和语言技能的常态分布中处于较低的一端，因此，不能很好地学会阅读。遗传学家已经发现存在着调节基因，它起着控制发展速度的作用。有人证明某些语言技能的发展要靠存在于基因型中的潜能。有人研究有关语言能力的遗传因素的文献后发现许多言语障碍和阅读障碍往往出现在一家人当中，这表明遗传传递同语言能力是有关系的。

2. Genetic factors. Genetic factors are also the reason why a person can't learn to read well. Genetic factors may cause dyslexia either because it determines the slow development of some skills, or because it sets the limits of some skills. Any delay in the development of the skills needed to learn reading will delay children's mastery of reading. A child's ability may be limited by heredity, which is at the lower end of the normal distribution of perception and language skills. Therefore, a child cannot learn to read well. Geneticists have found that there are regulatory genes that control the speed of development. It has been proved that the development of some language skills depends on the potential existing in the genotype. It has been found that many speech and reading disorders often occur in a family after studying the literature on the genetic factors of language ability, which shows that genetic transmission is related to language ability.

三、阅读障碍的诊断

3、 Diagnosis of dyslexia

要对阅读障碍儿童进行干预矫治，其前提是对阅读障碍进行较为准确的判断。一般说来，阅读障碍的诊断方式可以分为：常模参照测验、标准参照测验、非正式评价策略和课程参照评估等四种方式。为了研究的方便，在对大样本进行测查、筛选、为共性实验做准备时，人们多采用“智力———成就差异”测试作为诊断学习障碍的依据，也就是说智商在85分以上（一般采用韦氏儿童智力量表或瑞文标准推理测验），并且学业成绩明显低于其智力水平（一般认为是低于两个年纪级的水平），就可以诊断有阅读障碍。如果是针对特定个体进行矫治，就必须采用更细微的诊断方法来确定阅读障碍的具体类型，以便对症下药。在筛选患有阅读障碍的儿童时，一些研究者采取了分层检测的策略：①由当地学区确定哪些儿童为学习困难儿童；②在常模参照智力测验中得分必须在80到120之间；③阅读成绩至少低于平均数一个标准差；④阅读能力仍处于低年级最基础的水平；⑤不存在其他方面的障碍。如果满足以上5个条件，该儿童就被认为存在阅读障碍。

To intervene and correct children with dyslexia, the premise is to make a more accurate judgment of dyslexia. Generally speaking, there are four ways to diagnose dyslexia: norm reference test, standard reference test, informal evaluation strategy and curriculum reference evaluation. In order to facilitate the research, when large samples are tested, screened and prepared for the common experiment, people often use the "intelligence achievement difference" test as the basis for diagnosing learning disabilities, that is, the IQ is more than 85 points (generally using Wechsler children's intelligence scale or raven's standard reasoning test), and the academic performance is significantly lower than its intelligence level (generally considered as It's below two age levels), and you can diagnose dyslexia. If it is for a specific individual to correct, we must use more subtle diagnostic methods to determine the specific types of dyslexia, in order to suit the case. In the process of screening children with dyslexia, some researchers adopted the strategy of hierarchical detection: ① which children are learning disabilities determined by the local school district; ② the score in the norm reference intelligence test must be between 80 and 120; ③ the reading score must be at least one standard deviation lower than the average; ④ the reading ability is still at the most basic level in the lower grade; ⑤ there is no other aspect Obstacles. If the above five conditions are met, the child is considered to have dyslexia.

以上介绍的是对有阅读障碍的儿童正式分类的程序，除此之外，还有另一种情况，称为非正式分类程序。当某儿童出现十分严重的问题必须做测试时，一系列非正式分类程序便开始了：通常是班主任与其他教师（包括学校心理辅导教师）、校长、儿童的父母或监护人等进行交谈，共同探讨帮助该儿童和当儿童难以管教时帮助的最好策略。测试成绩出来以后，主要由学校的有关人员来决定应采取的措施。对测试的选择和解释，以及在数据报告的数量方面，通常会保持极大的灵活性。

In addition to the formal classification procedure for children with dyslexia described above, there is another situation called informal classification procedure. When a child has a very serious problem and has to be tested, a series of informal classification procedures begin: usually the head teacher talks with other teachers (including school psychological tutors), principals, children's parents or guardians, etc., to explore the best strategies to help the child and when it is difficult to discipline the child. After the test results come out, it is mainly up to the relevant personnel of the school to decide the measures to be taken. The choice and interpretation of tests, as well as the number of data reports, often remain extremely flexible.

四、阅读障碍的矫治措施

4、 Corrective measures for dyslexia

对儿童阅读障碍的矫治，国外理论界先后提出多种模式，我国研究者在吸收国外研究成果的基础上，归纳总结出了儿童阅读障碍矫治的五种模式，即行为干预模式，认知———行为干预模式，同伴指导模式，神经系统功能训练和生化与药物治疗。

On the basis of absorbing foreign research results, Chinese researchers have summed up five models for the treatment of children's dyslexia: behavior intervention model, cognitive behavior intervention model, companion guidance model, neural system function training and biochemical and drug treatment.

（一）行为干预模式

（1） Behavioral intervention model

这是针对学习障碍问题较早形成的、也是较为完善的一种模式。行为干预模式以行为主义的基本原则为指导思想，认为个体的行为可以通过操纵环境或行为后果而加以改变。其中操纵环境的意义在于为特定行为的产生提供机会，而操纵行为后果则旨在改变某种行为在未来增加或减少的可能性。运用行为干预模式，首先需要对行为产生的前提与后果进行细致的分析，这常常是以直接观察为依据的；其次，在确定那些可能引起或强化我们所要克服的问题中，主试要创造出稳定的、结构化的干预环境；再次，干预的规则要明确一致，尽可能以肯定的形式出现，而不要以单一的禁止形式出现。另外，对阅读障碍儿童所提的要求在一段时间内应少而明确，并保证随时提醒的反馈。行为干预模式主要包括及时强化、代币制、行为合同、冷板凳、反应代价等直接针对学习障碍儿童本身的行为矫治技术。除此之外，这些干预模式中还包括精神教学法、直接指导法和无误过程法等针对教师的特殊教学技术，这些方法均基于教师的教学对儿童的巨大影响这一事实而设计的。以无误过程法为例，该方法的基本假设是：如果可以恰当地安排教学进程，避免错误的发生，那么儿童的学习过程就会迅速而有效。其中的主要技术是“刺激形成”和“反应形成”。所谓“刺激形成”是指教师通过控制刺激的显现来诱导儿童做出正确的反应。无误过程法主要适用于儿童的识字和阅读训练。该教学法强调教师对教学过程的精心设计，以保证阅读障碍儿童对每一步骤做出正确的反应。一旦儿童出现错误反应，教师则一方面忽略这些错误，避免指责儿童，另一方面返回前一步骤，对任务做进一步的指导。

This is an earlier and more perfect model for learning disabilities. The behavior intervention model takes the basic principle of behaviorism as the guiding ideology, and believes that individual behavior can be changed by manipulating the environment or behavior consequences. The significance of manipulation environment is to provide opportunities for specific behaviors, while the consequences of manipulation are to change the possibility of increasing or decreasing certain behaviors in the future. To use the behavioral intervention model, first of all, we need to make a detailed analysis of the premise and consequences of the behavior, which is often based on direct observation; secondly, in determining the problems that may cause or strengthen our efforts to overcome, the main trial should create a stable and structured intervention environment; thirdly, the rules of intervention should be clear and consistent, and appear in a positive form as much as possible , not in the form of a single prohibition. In addition, the requirements for children with dyslexia should be few and clear in a period of time, and the feedback should be reminded at any time. Behavior intervention model mainly includes timely reinforcement, token system, behavior contract, cold bench, response cost and so on. In addition, these intervention models also include spiritual teaching method, direct guidance method and error free process method, which are designed based on the fact that teachers' teaching has a great impact on children. Taking the error free process method as an example, the basic assumption of this method is: if the teaching process can be properly arranged to avoid mistakes, then children's learning process will be rapid and effective. The main techniques are "stimulus formation" and "response formation". The so-called "stimulus formation" refers to that the teacher induces children to make correct response by controlling the appearance of stimulus. The error free process method is mainly applicable to children's literacy and reading training. This teaching method emphasizes the teacher's careful design of the teaching process, so as to ensure that children with dyslexia can make correct response to each step. Once a child has a wrong response, the teacher, on the one hand, ignores these mistakes and avoids blaming the child. On the other hand, he returns to the previous step and gives further guidance to the task.

（二）认知——行为干预模式与行为干预模式的那种特别强调教师的指导作用的论点不同，认知———行为干预模式强调阅读障碍儿童形成主动的、自我调控型的学习风格。该模式的创立者认为，个体自身可以控制自己的行为，所以，行为的出现并不单纯取决于环境刺激或行为后果，而受其自身认识评价系统即元认知系统的影响，阅读障碍儿童所具有的潜能与实际表现间的差距，其原因在于他们学习过程是消极被动的，不会使用有效的策略。如果提高其策略使用的水平，阅读障碍儿童的学习状况也会得到改善。从这一“策略缺陷”的病理机制观点出发，认知———行为干预模式主张对阅读障碍儿童进行认知策略训练和自我控制训练（或自我指导训练）。

（2） Cognitive behavioral intervention model is different from that of behavioral intervention model, which emphasizes the guidance of teachers. Cognitive behavioral intervention model emphasizes that children with dyslexia form active and self-regulated learning style. The founders of this model believe that individuals can control their own behaviors. Therefore, the emergence of behaviors does not only depend on environmental stimulation or behavioral consequences, but also on the impact of their own cognitive evaluation system, namely metacognitive system. The reason for the gap between the potential and actual performance of children with dyslexia is that their learning process is passive and will not be used effectively Strategy. If we improve the level of strategy use, the learning situation of dyslexic children will also be improved. From the point of view of the pathological mechanism of this "strategy defect", the cognitive behavioral intervention model advocates cognitive strategy training and self-control training (or self-directed training) for children with reading disabilities.

1、知策略训练。

1. Knowledge strategy training.

研究者发现，学习障碍儿童的一个重要问题在于他们缺乏某些有效的认知策略，或者不会选用恰当的策略。认知策略训练的基本程序如下：①对阅读障碍儿童的现有策略水平进行测评，明确这些儿童的劣势所在，并确立所要训练的目标策略；②向儿童解释目标策略；③示范目标策略的使用；④言语预演；⑤提供低难度的材料，进行有控制的练习，并给予反馈；⑥提供与阅读障碍儿童年龄水平相当难度的阅读材料，进行练习并给予反馈；⑦测评阅读障碍儿童的策略，并指导儿童学会如何根据任务来选择恰当的策略；⑧在实际学习中实现迁移。

The researchers found that an important problem for children with learning disabilities is that they lack some effective cognitive strategies or do not choose appropriate strategies. The basic procedures of cognitive strategy training are as follows: ① evaluate the current strategy level of children with dyslexia, identify the disadvantages of these children, and establish the goal strategies to be trained; ② explain the goal strategies to children; ③ demonstrate the use of goal strategies; ④ speech rehearsal; ⑤ provide low-difficulty materials, conduct controlled exercises and give feedback; ⑥ provide and For reading materials of quite difficult age level of children with reading disabilities, practice and give feedback; ⑦ evaluate the strategies of children with reading disabilities, and guide children to learn how to choose appropriate strategies according to tasks; ⑧ realize transfer in actual learning.

2、自我监控训练。

2. Self monitoring training.

在这类训练中，训练者指导儿童主动运用内部语言定时监控自己的行为，一直到一个任务完成为止。在让儿童进行自我监控之前，训练者要先讲明具体作法。在最初几次，训练者需要观测儿童的自我监控情况，及时表扬儿童的正确行为，再逐步撤销外在监控。综观认知———行为训练模式，可以看到其突出特点是：尽量引导儿童成为自己学习过程的主动参与者；重视示范目标策略、方法的运用；以儿童的外部言语为中介。这些特点保证阅读障碍儿童对自己阅读学习过程的控制并改变其原有消极被动的反应风格。

In this kind of training, the trainer instructs the children to actively use the internal language to monitor their behavior regularly until a task is completed. Before children are allowed to conduct self-monitoring, the trainer should explain the specific methods. In the first few times, the trainer needs to observe the self-monitoring of children, praise the correct behavior of children in time, and then gradually withdraw the external monitoring. From the perspective of cognitive behavioral training model, we can see its outstanding characteristics are: to guide children to become active participants in their learning process; to attach importance to the application of demonstration target strategies and methods; and to use children's external speech as an intermediary. These characteristics ensure that children with dyslexia control their own reading learning process and change their original passive response style.

（三）同伴指导模式

（3） Peer guidance model

这是20世纪80年代中期以来兴起的新型训练模式，即让一个学习障碍儿童帮助另一个学习障碍儿童，或让学习障碍儿童的同伴（即正常儿童）帮助他。这一模式不仅适用于对课程内容的课外辅导，而且也适用于对学习障碍进行社会技能训练。美国的一些研究表明，儿童在集体学习中，其成就水平常常超过了平均数；同时，另外的一些研究则表明，集体活动有助于儿童学业能力的提高。等人在！//$年的一项研究中发现，同伴指导策略有助于提高阅读障碍儿童的阅读流畅性和理解力。CB==D&&‘及其同事发展了经典性同伴指导矫治模式。该模式的具体进行过程是：首先抽取部分儿童作为指导者，把这些指导者介绍给他们的阅读障碍同伴；然后对指导者进行特殊训练，教给他需要给阅读障碍同伴教授的内容及方法；接着安排同伴指导活动，一般一周至少一次。这种模式可以是一对一的，但更多情况下是采用几个指导者与几个同伴共同活动的形式。教师不仅要负责组建同伴群体和训练指导者，还要对指导者进一步训练，或对被指导者进行额外的辅导。

This is a new type of training mode that has been developed since the mid-1980s, that is, let one child with learning disabilities help another child with learning disabilities, or let the companion of the child with learning disabilities (normal children) help him. The first mock exam is not only applicable to extracurricular tutoring, but also to social skills training for learning disabilities. Some studies in the United States have shown that children's achievement level in collective learning often exceeds the average; at the same time, other studies have shown that collective activities help children improve their academic ability. People wait! //In a study of $, it was found that peer guidance strategies can improve reading fluency and comprehension of children with dyslexia. CB = = D & amp; 'and colleagues developed a classic peer-directed correction model. The specific process of the model is: first, select some children as the instructors, introduce these instructors to their dyslexic peers; then carry out special training for the instructors, teach them the content and methods that need to be taught to dyslexic peers; then arrange peer guidance activities, generally at least once a week. This mode can be one-to-one, but more often it is in the form of several mentors and several peers working together. Teachers should not only be responsible for the formation of peer groups and training instructors, but also for further training of instructors, or for additional guidance to the coached.

同伴指导法可以较大地促进阅读障碍儿童的主动性，提高训练双方在阅读学习方面的能力，同时也是改善阅读障碍儿童在学校中的社交地位、重塑其自我概念的有效途径。但是，这一方法并不适用于所有的学习内容和儿童，对于难度大的课程内容以及有显着外化的行为问题的儿童都不要采用此法。

Peer guidance can greatly promote the initiative of children with dyslexia, improve the ability of both sides in reading learning, and it is also an effective way to improve the social status of children with dyslexia in school and reshape their self-concept. However, this method is not suitable for all learning content and children. It is not suitable for children with difficult course content and significant externalized behavior problems.

（四）神经系统功能训练神经系统功能训练即心理过程训练，该模式的创立者认为学习依赖神经系统的高级功能，而这些高级功能实现是以基本的感知等心理过程为基础的。因此，对基本心理过程进行训练就可以改善脑功能，进而提高学业成绩。曾性初（1997）曾对我国目前所流行的训练的效用问题提出尖锐的批评，认为这种训练的效果被人为地夸大了。可见，此类方法的采用还是应慎重一些，并需要进一步地探索。

（4） The founders of this model believe that learning depends on the advanced functions of the nervous system, and the realization of these advanced functions is based on the basic psychological processes such as perception. Therefore, the basic psychological process training can improve brain function, and then improve academic performance. Zeng xingchu (1997) made a sharp criticism on the utility of the current popular training in China, believing that the effect of such training has been artificially exaggerated. It can be seen that the adoption of such methods should be cautious and further exploration is needed.

（五）生化与药物治疗生化与药物治疗是采用药物治疗，首先控制和改善阅读障碍儿童的生理病情，进而改进其学习状况。对于药物治疗的后效问题，人们进行了大量的研究，发现这些药物治疗阅读障碍有短期疗效，但其治疗效果有限，应当慎重。

（5） Biochemical and drug therapy biochemical and drug therapy is the use of drug therapy, first to control and improve the physiological condition of children with dyslexia, and then improve their learning status. For the problem of the after effect of drug treatment, people have carried out a lot of research and found that these drugs have short-term effect on dyslexia, but its effect is limited, so we should be careful.

总之，以上五种矫治模式各有其利弊，对阅读障碍儿童的教学干预不应仅仅局限于某一种矫治模式上，而应兼容并包，对症下药。

All in all, the above five correction models have their own advantages and disadvantages. The teaching intervention for children with dyslexia should not only be limited to one correction model, but also be inclusive and appropriate.