GRE作文备考资料（7）

　　66 学习的生理学

　　Thought, in a general sense, is commonly conceived as something arising from the stimulation of neurons in the brain. Current understanding of neurons and the central nervous system implies that the process of learning corresponds to changes in the relationship between certain neurons in the brain. Research is ongoing in this area.

　　It is generally recognized that memory is more easily retained when multiple parts of the brain are stimulated, such as through combinations of hearing, seeing, smelling, motor skills, touch sense, and logical thinking.

　　Repeating thoughts and actions is an essential part of learning. Thinking about a specific memory will make it easy to recall. This is the reason why reviews are such an integral part of education. On first performing a task, it is difficult as there is no path from axon to dendrite. After several repetitions a pathway begins to form and the task becomes easier. When the task becomes so easy that you can perform it at any time, the pathway is fully formed. The speed at which a pathway is formed depends on the individual, but is usually localized resulting in talents.

　　第六大类 政治类

　　2 哲学与政治

　　Philosophers have forever been concerned with political and social matters. Not only have they asked how politics work but mainly, how they should work. These philosophers have been concerned with the nature and justification of political obligation and authority and the goals of political action. Although their doctrines have differentiated, and numerous have been utopian in concept, they have all shared the same ideas and convictions that it is the political philosopher?s duty to distinguish between what is and what ought to be, between existing political institutions and potentially more humane institutions. Throughout the centuries, philosophers have debated over the moral issues involved in the search for the ideal society. Three influential philosophers in this field have been Plato, John Locke and Karl Marx. Their philosophies and utopian states have continually influenced political actions and thoughts throughout the ages.

　　19 掌权者的文化

　　The idea of unmarked categories originated in feminism. The theory analyzes the culture of the powerful. The powerful comprise those people in society with easy access to resources, those who can exercise power without considering their actions. For the powerful, their culture seems obvious; for the powerless, on the other hand, it remains out of reach, lite and expensive.

　　The unmarked category can form the identifying mark of the powerful. The unmarked category becomes the standard against which to measure everything else. For most Western readers, it is posited that if a protagonist?s race is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is Caucasian; if a sexual identity is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is heterosexual; if the gender of a body is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that it is male; if a disability is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is able bodied, just as a set of examples.

　　One can often overlook unmarked categories. Whiteness forms an unmarked category not commonly visible to the powerful, as they often fall within this category. The unmarked category becomes the norm, with the other categories relegated to deviant status. Social groups can apply this view of power to race, gender, and disability without modification: the able body is the neutral body; the man is the normal status.

　　第七大类 文化类

　　1 文化的定义

　　Culture is defined here as a set of distinctive material, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual features of a social group, including art, literature, lifestyles, value systems, traditions, rituals, and beliefs. The link between human biology and human behavior and culture is often very close, making it difficult to clearly divide topics into one area or the other; as such, the placement of some subjects may be based primarily on convention.

　　Culture consists of values, social norms, and artifacts. A culture?s values define what it holds to be important or ethical. Closely linked are norms, expectations of how people ought to behave, bound by tradition. Artifacts, or material culture, are objects derived from the culture?s values, norms, and understanding of the world.

　　The mainstream anthropological view of culture implies that most people experience a strong resistance when reminded that there is an animal as well as a spiritual aspect to human nature.

　　13 不同文化间的关系及其六大研究领域

　　An intercultural relation is a relatively new formal field of social science studies. It deals with the ability to get along with others, especially those from a different cultural background.

　　Some of the main topics of study are:

　　1. Reflection and development of cultural competence

　　2. Analyzing different cultural patterns in the world

　　3. Finding strategies for adapting

　　4. Solving problems in intercultural communication

　　5. Teaching social skills to reduce cultural misunderstandings

　　6. Studying the lifelong impact of youth and other exchanges

　　15 不同文化间交流的原则

　　Intercultural communication principles guide the process of exchanging meaningful and unambiguous information across cultural boundaries, in a way that preserves mutual respect and minimizes antagonism. For these purposes, culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms of behavior. It refers to coherent groups of people whether resident wholly or partly within state territories, or existing without residence in any particular territory. Hence, these principles may have equal relevance when a tourist seeks help, where two well-established independent corporations attempt to merge their operations, and where politicians attempt to negotiate world peace.

　　第八大类 艺术类

　　1 柏拉图和亚里士多德关于艺术的观点

　　Plato viewed human life as a pilgrimage from the appearance to reality. He also believed that a piece of art had to be strictly censored when they depicted any form of evil and cruelty. When an artist imitated what was bad, they added to the sum of badness in the world. Both Plato and Aristotle pointed out, we as humans do find delight in representations of objects and emotions that we consider different from real life; most of us agree with Aristotle in refusing to believe that they are corrupt.

　　3 艺术的欣赏和审美

　　We must be aware of the global culture and heritage from which art emerges. For example when teaching our students art aesthetics, we must never let them think that there is only one way to view art. Students, and especially teachers, should be ready to accept all ways in which art evaluation can occur. Western aesthetics is based primarily on individuality, originality, permanence, and form. These factors cannot be applied to art from every culture. For example, African art is understood in terms of rites of passage, healing, power, control, and commerce. Students must be taught to understand the principles of art as they are understood by the cultural group in which they belong in order to truly achieve global awareness and appreciation for art. Obviously, teachers must gain this awareness themselves before they can impart it to their students.

　　Travel, physically or intellectually, is necessary for teachers who truly aspire to instill a devotion to open-mindedness and tolerance in their students. Furthermore, teachers themselves must be open to teaching about culturally diverse art, and learning the history and meaning behind such pieces. As teachers, we must constantly be open to expanding our base knowledge and learning new information to share with our students. It is important to note that teaching art requires more than just looking at pictures, listening to music or watching a dance. To teach art in a truly meaningful way, principles of art history, production, criticism and aesthetics must be explored.

　　17 艺术评论受到时间的考验

　　Despite perceptions that art criticism is a much lower risk activity than making art, opinions of current art are always liable to drastic corrections with the passage of time. Critics of the past are　often ridiculed for either favoring artists now derided or dismissing artists now venerated . Some art movements themselves were named disparagingly by critics, with the name later adopted as a sort of badge of honor by the artists of the style , the original negative meaning forgotten.　Some critics are unable to adapt to new movements in art and allow their opinions to override their objectivity, resulting in inappropriately dated critique. John Ruskin famously compared one of James McNeill Whistler?s paintings, Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket, to flinging a pot of paint in the public?s face.

　　Artists have often had an uneasy relationship with their critics. Artists usually need positive opinions from critics for their work to be viewed and purchased; unfortunately for the artists, only later generations may understand it.